Geography Playlist
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The Universe and the Earth
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Atmosphere and its composition
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3
Atmospheric Temperature
11 topics
4
Atmospheric Moisture
9 topics
5
Air Mass, Fronts & Cyclones
15 topics
6
Evolution of Earths Crust, Earthquakes and Volcanoes
23 topics
7
Interior of The Earth
14 topics
8
Landforms
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9
Geomorphic Processes
10 topics
10
Movement of Ocean Water
16 topics
11
Oceans and its Properties
12 topics
12
Climate of a Region
14 topics
13
Indian Geography - introduction, Geology
5 topics
14
Physiography of India
27 topics
15
Indian Climate
20 topics
16
Indian Drainage
32 topics
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Soil and Natural Vegetation
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Mineral and Energy Resources, Industries in India
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Indian Agriculture
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Chapter 12: Climate of a Region
Chapter Test14 topics•Estimated reading: 42 minutes
Factors Affecting Climate of a Region
Key Point
Climate of a region depends on latitude, altitude, proximity to sea, prevailing winds, cloud cover, ocean currents, mountain ranges, soil and vegetation, and slope. These factors together regulate temperature, rainfall, and seasonal variations.
Climate of a region depends on latitude, altitude, proximity to sea, prevailing winds, cloud cover, ocean currents, mountain ranges, soil and vegetation, and slope. These factors together regulate temperature, rainfall, and seasonal variations.
Detailed Notes (28 points)
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Latitude
Places near the equator (low latitudes) are warmer due to direct overhead sun rays.
Higher latitudes (towards poles) receive slanting rays, hence colder climates.
Altitude
Temperature decreases with increase in height (lapse rate ~6.5°C/km).
Explains why hill stations are cooler than surrounding plains.
Distance from the Sea
Coastal regions experience equable climate (less difference between summer & winter).
Interior areas away from sea show extreme continental climate.
Prevailing Winds
On-shore winds from sea bring moisture → rainfall.
Off-shore winds from land are dry → little or no precipitation.
Cloud Cover
Sunny regions → high diurnal temperature range.
Cloudy regions → low diurnal range (as clouds trap outgoing heat).
Ocean Currents
Warm currents raise coastal temperature & humidity (e.g., Gulf Stream in Europe).
Cold currents lower temperature & reduce rainfall (e.g., Peru Current).
Mountain Ranges
Windward side receives heavy rainfall due to orographic uplift.
Leeward side lies in 'rain shadow' → dry conditions.
Mountains also block cold/hot winds moderating extremes.
Soil and Vegetation
Sandy/rocky soils heat up quickly, black soil absorbs more heat.
Forests add moisture via transpiration, increase rainfall locally.
Slope
Gentle slopes absorb more solar energy → higher temperature.
Steep slopes reflect more solar rays → lower temperature.
Major Climatic Controls
| Factor | Effect on Climate | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Latitude | Direct/oblique sun rays control temperature | Equator vs. Poles |
| Altitude | Temperature decreases with height | Himalayan hill stations |
| Distance from Sea | Equable vs. continental climate | Mumbai vs. Delhi |
| Ocean Currents | Warm ↑ rainfall, Cold ↓ rainfall | Gulf Stream & Peru Current |
| Mountain Ranges | Orographic rainfall & rain shadow | Western Ghats (rainy) vs. Deccan Plateau (dry) |
Mains Key Points
Climate of a region is a combined outcome of multiple natural factors like latitude, altitude, ocean currents, and human-modified land cover.
Orographic rainfall explains the contrasting wet and dry zones within a short distance.
Climatic controls directly influence agriculture, settlement patterns, and biodiversity.
Changing climate drivers like ocean currents and deforestation alter regional climate drastically.
Understanding climatic controls is vital for regional planning, monsoon forecasting, and climate adaptation.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Latitude and altitude are the most fundamental controls of temperature.
Coastal areas have equable climate due to maritime influence.
Warm currents increase rainfall; cold currents reduce it.
Orographic effect: windward = wet, leeward = dry.
Climate Classification
Key Point
Climate classification groups regions based on temperature, precipitation, and causative factors. Köppen’s classification is the most widely used empirical scheme, dividing the world into five major climate groups with subcategories.
Climate classification groups regions based on temperature, precipitation, and causative factors. Köppen’s classification is the most widely used empirical scheme, dividing the world into five major climate groups with subcategories.
Detailed Notes (27 points)
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Types of Climate Classification
# Genetic Classification
Based on causative factors like air mass interactions, circulation patterns, and origin of weather systems.
# Empirical Classification
Based on observed data such as average annual/monthly temperature and precipitation.
Example: Köppen Climate Classification.
Köppen’s Climate Classification
Developed in 1918; refined over time.
Uses mean monthly/annual temperature and precipitation as primary criteria.
Five main groups (A, B, C, D, E).
Subdivisions marked by small letters for seasonality (f, m, w, s) and temperature severity (a, b, c, d).
# Major Climate Groups:
1. A - Tropical, Humid Climates → All months above 18°C.
2. B - Dry Climates → Precipitation less than potential evapotranspiration.
3. C - Moist Mid-latitude, Mild Winter → Coldest month between 0°C and 18°C.
4. D - Moist Mid-latitude, Cold Winter → Coldest month below 0°C.
5. E - Polar Climates → Extremely cold, summers also short/cold.
# Seasonality Symbols:
f → No dry season.
m → Monsoon type.
w → Dry winter.
s → Dry summer.
# Temperature Severity Symbols:
a → Hot summers.
b → Warm summers.
c → Cool summers.
d → Very cold winters (subarctic).
Köppen’s Climatic Groups
| Group | Basis | Regions/Examples |
|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical | All months >18°C | Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, SE Asia |
| B - Dry | Low rainfall (arid/semi-arid) | Sahara Desert, Thar Desert |
| C - Mild Mid-latitude | Winters mild, coldest month 0–18°C | Mediterranean, SE USA |
| D - Cold Mid-latitude | Cold winters (<0°C) | Canada, Siberia |
| E - Polar | Cold summers & winters | Antarctica, Greenland |
Mains Key Points
Köppen’s classification provides a scientific global framework to compare climatic regions.
It links vegetation with climate—useful for agriculture and ecology.
Limitations: does not account for winds, soil type, or extremes (like monsoons or deserts).
Important for understanding regional climate variations, e.g., Indian monsoon regions.
Forms basis for climate change impact studies and biodiversity mapping.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Köppen classification is based on both temperature & precipitation.
‘B’ (Dry) is the only group defined by precipitation rather than temperature.
India has Tropical Monsoon type (Am, Aw).
Seasonality indicators: f = no dry season, w = dry winter, s = dry summer.
Köppen’s Climatic Regions
Key Point
Köppen classified global climates into groups (A-E, H) based on temperature and precipitation. Each group is further subdivided into subtypes with unique rainfall and temperature patterns.
Köppen classified global climates into groups (A-E, H) based on temperature and precipitation. Each group is further subdivided into subtypes with unique rainfall and temperature patterns.
Köppen Climate Groups & Subtypes
| Group | Type | Characteristics | Distribution | Climate |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical Humid | Af - Tropical Wet | Uniform rainfall, hot temperature | Equator (Amazon, Congo, Indonesia) | Daily convectional rainfall, uniformly hot |
| A - Tropical Humid | Am - Tropical Monsoon | Reversal of winds, summer rain, dry winter | India, NE South America, N. Australia | Summer rain, dry winter |
| A - Tropical Humid | Aw - Tropical Wet & Dry | Distinct wet/dry seasons, droughts common | Brazil, Sudan, Central Africa | Less rainfall, seasonal droughts |
| B - Dry | BWh/BSh - Desert & Steppe | Low rainfall, extreme temps, arid to semi-arid | Sahara, Thar, Arabia | Hot deserts, dry steppe zones |
| C - Warm Temperate | Cwa - Humid Subtropical (dry winter) | Summer rain, mild winters | North India, S. China | Warm summers, mild winters |
| C - Warm Temperate | Cs - Mediterranean | Hot dry summer, mild wet winter | Mediterranean Basin, California, Chile | Summer drought, winter rains |
| C - Warm Temperate | Cfa - Humid Subtropical | Humid, summer thunderstorms | SE USA, SE China, Japan | High summer humidity, rainfall 75–150 cm |
| C - Warm Temperate | Cfb - Marine West Coast | Moderate, oceanic influence | W. Europe, New Zealand, Chile | Cool summers, mild winters |
| D - Cold Snow Forest | Df - Humid Winters | Cold snowy winters, short summer | Poleward of Marine West Coast (Canada, Russia) | Cold winters, frost-free short summer |
| D - Cold Snow Forest | Dw - Dry Winters | Cold winters, summer rainfall | NE Asia (Siberia, Mongolia) | Extremely cold winters, summer rain |
| E - Polar | ET - Tundra | Cold summers <10°C, scanty rainfall | Arctic coast, Alaska, Canada, Himalayas | Cold, long daylight in summer |
| E - Polar | EF - Ice Cap | Perennial frost, below 0°C year-round | Greenland, Antarctica | Extremely cold, minimal precipitation |
| H - Highland | Highland Climates | Temperature/precipitation vary with elevation | Tibetan Plateau, Andes, Kilimanjaro | Varied microclimates by altitude |
Mains Key Points
Köppen classification links vegetation with climate, useful for agro-ecology.
Tropical climates (Af, Am, Aw) support dense biodiversity but face deforestation.
Mediterranean (Cs) regions are agriculturally rich (wheat, olives, citrus).
Polar and Highland climates crucial for studying global warming impact.
India’s climate diversity explained by Köppen—from tropical monsoon to Himalayan tundra.
Prelims Strategy Tips
‘B’ (Dry) is defined by precipitation < evapotranspiration.
Af = Equatorial rainforest; Am = Monsoon; Aw = Savanna.
Cs = Mediterranean (summer dry); Cfa = Humid subtropical (India NE region = Cwa).
ET and EF differ in summer temperature (<10°C vs <0°C).
India → Am (Monsoon), Aw (Savanna), Cwa (North India), ET (Himalayan Tundra), H (Highlands).
Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
Key Point
Found near the equator (5º–10º N/S), this climate is marked by high uniform temperatures, heavy rainfall, dense evergreen forests, and primitive tribal livelihoods.
Found near the equator (5º–10º N/S), this climate is marked by high uniform temperatures, heavy rainfall, dense evergreen forests, and primitive tribal livelihoods.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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Distribution
Located between 5º and 10º north and south of the equator.
Found in Amazon and Congo basins, Malaysia, East Indies.
Climatic Conditions
Uniform temperature ~27ºC throughout the year.
No distinct winter, minimal variation in temp.
Heavy rainfall: 150–250 cm annually, well-distributed.
High humidity and cloudiness.
Controlled by ITCZ movement and trade winds.
Natural Vegetation
Dense evergreen tropical rainforests (Selvas in Amazon).
Tall trees with thick canopy, sparse undergrowth.
Hardwood species: mahogany, ebony, greenheart.
Lianas, epiphytes, and parasitic plants common.
Mangroves in coastal swamps.
Life and Economy
Primitive tribes dependent on hunting, fishing, gathering.
Shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn).
Pygmies in Congo → nut collection.
Orang Asli in Malaysia → cane products.
Forest-based economy, limited modern agriculture.
Key Features of Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Temperature | Uniform ~27ºC, no winter |
| Rainfall | 150–250 cm annually, convectional type |
| Vegetation | Evergreen rainforests, hardwoods, mangroves |
| Tribes | Pygmies (Congo), Orang Asli (Malaysia) |
| Economic Activity | Shifting cultivation, forest products, gathering |
Mains Key Points
This climate supports the richest biodiversity on Earth.
Acts as Earth’s 'lungs' by absorbing CO2 and releasing O2.
Forests face deforestation due to logging, shifting cultivation, mining.
Tribal livelihoods remain vulnerable to modernization and land loss.
Global climatic balance strongly linked to tropical rainforests.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Amazon forests = 'Selvas'.
Rainfall mainly convectional due to ITCZ.
Hardwood trees dominate (mahogany, ebony).
Tribes practice shifting cultivation and gathering economy.
Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
Key Point
These climates occur between 5º–30º latitude on either side of the equator. The monsoon climate is driven by seasonal reversal of winds, while the marine climate is influenced by trade winds. Both support deciduous vegetation and agriculture.
These climates occur between 5º–30º latitude on either side of the equator. The monsoon climate is driven by seasonal reversal of winds, while the marine climate is influenced by trade winds. Both support deciduous vegetation and agriculture.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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Distribution
Found between 5º–30º latitudes on either side of the equator.
Tropical Monsoon: Indian subcontinent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern China, northern Australia.
Tropical Marine: Central America (West Indies), Northeast Australia, Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, Guinea coast, eastern Brazil.
Climatic Conditions
# Tropical Monsoon
Driven by land-sea heating differences.
Summer: Low pressure over Asia pulls in moist monsoon winds (SW monsoon in India, SE monsoon in Java).
Winter: High pressure over Asia, cold dry NE monsoons prevail.
# Tropical Marine
Found along east coasts of tropics.
Continuous rainfall from trade winds.
Orographic rainfall (Eastern Brazil) + convectional rainfall due to daytime heat.
Natural Vegetation
Summer rainfall supports open, deciduous forests.
Less dense and diverse than equatorial forests.
Valuable hardwoods: teak, sal.
Life and Economy
Agriculture dominant: paddy, sugarcane, hemp.
Dependent on monsoon reliability → drought/flood prone.
Coastal regions also support fishing and trade.
Comparison: Tropical Monsoon vs Tropical Marine Climate
| Aspect | Tropical Monsoon | Tropical Marine |
|---|---|---|
| Distribution | India, SE Asia, N. Australia | Caribbean, East Africa, NE Australia, Brazil |
| Rainfall | Seasonal, summer rains, dry winter | More uniform, trade-wind driven |
| Wind System | Reversal: SW monsoon (summer), NE monsoon (winter) | Steady trade winds |
| Vegetation | Deciduous forests (teak, sal) | Similar but more coastal vegetation |
| Economy | Agriculture (paddy, sugarcane) | Agriculture + fishing, trade |
Mains Key Points
Tropical Monsoon climate supports dense populations due to fertile soil and agriculture.
Erratic monsoon rains cause floods and droughts affecting food security.
Tropical Marine climates support fishing and trade-based economies.
Forests exploited for teak and hardwoods → deforestation challenge.
Both climates are vulnerable to climate change and El Niño variations.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Tropical Monsoon = marked dry & wet seasons, driven by land-sea heating.
Tropical Marine = continuous rainfall from trade winds.
Teak is the most important hardwood species in monsoon climate.
Key crops: paddy (staple), sugarcane, hemp.
Savannah or Sudan Climate
Key Point
The Savannah climate is a transitional type between equatorial forests and hot deserts, marked by tall grasses, scattered trees, distinct wet and dry seasons, and rich wildlife known as 'Big Game Country'.
The Savannah climate is a transitional type between equatorial forests and hot deserts, marked by tall grasses, scattered trees, distinct wet and dry seasons, and rich wildlife known as 'Big Game Country'.
Detailed Notes (22 points)
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Distribution
Transitional climate between equatorial forests and hot deserts.
Found in Sudan, West African Sudan, East Africa, South Africa, the Llanos of the Orinoco Basin, and the Campos of the Brazilian Highlands.
Climatic Conditions
High annual average temperature above 18°C.
Monthly temperature range: 20°C–32°C, with hot days and cool nights.
Annual rainfall: 80–160 cm, decreases farther from the equator.
Rainy season: May–September (Northern Hemisphere), October–March (Southern Hemisphere).
Natural Vegetation
Dominated by tall grasses and scattered deciduous trees.
Vegetation known as 'bush-weld'.
Tree adaptations: umbrella-shaped canopies, wide trunks for water storage.
Grass species: Elephant grass up to 15 feet high, lush in rainy season but dry out later.
Savannah’s Animal Life
Called 'Big Game Country' due to rich wildlife.
Herbivores: zebras, giraffes, elephants, antelopes, gazelles.
Predators: lions, leopards, hyenas, tigers, jaguars, foxes.
Rivers and wetlands: hippos, rhinos, crocodiles, and reptiles.
Life and Economy
Tribes with mixed lifestyles: pastoralists like the Masai, agricultural groups like the Hausa.
Agriculture underdeveloped, livestock herding common.
Economy partly based on tourism due to wildlife safaris.
Savannah Climate – Key Features
| Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
| Temperature | 18°C+ annually; hot days and cool nights |
| Rainfall | 80–160 cm; seasonal (wet & dry) |
| Vegetation | Tall grasses, scattered deciduous trees |
| Wildlife | Big game animals, predators, reptiles in rivers |
| Economy | Pastoralism, shifting cultivation, tourism |
Mains Key Points
Savannah climate supports mixed economies – pastoralism, shifting cultivation, and tourism.
Wildlife conservation critical due to hunting and habitat loss.
Seasonal rainfall variability leads to drought-prone agriculture.
Grasslands play a major role in carbon storage and ecological balance.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Savannah climate = transitional between equatorial and desert regions.
Distinct wet and dry season → grasses dominate over forests.
Known as 'Big Game Country'.
Elephant grass is a characteristic vegetation.
Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climates
Key Point
Desert climates are marked by extreme aridity, intense temperature ranges, and sparse xerophytic vegetation. Hot deserts lie between 15º–30º latitudes, while mid-latitude deserts occur in rain shadows and continental interiors.
Desert climates are marked by extreme aridity, intense temperature ranges, and sparse xerophytic vegetation. Hot deserts lie between 15º–30º latitudes, while mid-latitude deserts occur in rain shadows and continental interiors.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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Distribution
# Hot Desert Climate
Found between 15º and 30º latitudes, mainly on the western margins of continents.
Examples: Sahara Desert, Arabian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari, Namib, Great Australian Desert, Atacama Desert, North American deserts (Mojave, Sonoran, Californian, Mexican).
# Mid-Latitude Desert Climate
Found in continental interiors and rain-shadow regions.
Examples: Ladakh, Turkestan, Taklamakan, and Gobi (Asia); Great Basin (North America); Patagonian Desert (South America).
Climatic Conditions
Rainfall: Extremely low (often below 25 cm annually, some < 0.5 mm).
Temperature: Very high in hot deserts (Al Aziziya, Libya recorded 58ºC).
High diurnal temperature range (very hot days, cold nights).
Mid-latitude deserts experience hot summers and extremely cold winters.
Natural Vegetation
Sparse vegetation, mainly xerophytes adapted to aridity.
Common plants: cacti, thorny bushes, succulents, acacias, long-rooted grasses.
Trees are scarce; vegetation concentrated near oases or ephemeral water bodies.
Life and Economy
Inhabitants include nomadic herdsmen (camels, sheep, goats), hunters, and traders.
Oases support agriculture (dates, wheat, barley, citrus fruits).
Mining of minerals and oil extraction important in deserts like Sahara and Arabian Peninsula.
Tourism (desert safaris, cultural heritage) is a growing economic activity.
Hot vs Mid-Latitude Desert Climate
| Aspect | Hot Desert | Mid-Latitude Desert |
|---|---|---|
| Location | 15º–30º latitudes, western margins | Continental interiors, rain shadows |
| Rainfall | Very low (<25 cm annually) | Low, but slightly higher than hot deserts |
| Temperature | Very high, extreme diurnal range | Hot summers, very cold winters |
| Vegetation | Xerophytes, sparse trees | Sparse, cold-adapted xerophytes |
| Examples | Sahara, Atacama, Thar, Kalahari | Ladakh, Gobi, Taklamakan, Patagonian |
Mains Key Points
Desert climates show how pressure belts, wind circulation, and continentality influence aridity.
Hot deserts are rich in minerals and hydrocarbons (Sahara, Arabian Peninsula).
Mid-latitude deserts like Ladakh highlight how topography (rain shadow effect) shapes local climates.
Adaptations of vegetation and lifestyle illustrate human-environment interaction in extreme climates.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Hot deserts = 15º–30º latitudes (trade wind belts, high-pressure zones).
Mid-latitude deserts = rain shadow effect or continental interiors.
Vegetation is xerophytic: cactus, acacia, thorn bushes.
Sahara is the largest hot desert; Gobi is a cold desert.
Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
Key Point
Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, supporting citrus cultivation and viticulture. It is found in regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea and on western margins of continents around 30º–40º latitudes.
Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, supporting citrus cultivation and viticulture. It is found in regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea and on western margins of continents around 30º–40º latitudes.
Detailed Notes (25 points)
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Distribution
European lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea (Spain, Italy, Greece, France).
Central and Southern California (USA).
Central Chile (South America).
North-western coastal Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia).
Coastal zones of Western and Southern Australia.
Western Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel.
Climatic Conditions
Hot, dry summers with offshore trade winds.
Winters are mild, wet, and influenced by westerlies.
Annual precipitation: 35–90 cm, mostly in winter.
Sirocco winds (hot, dry desert winds) affect the Mediterranean Basin.
Clear skies and long sunshine hours in summer.
Natural Vegetation
Characterized by short, broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs (sclerophyllous vegetation).
Plants adapted with thick bark and waxy leaves to resist drought.
Lack of dense forest shade.
Suitable for fruit cultivation; famous as the 'orchards of the world'.
Crops: citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, limes), olives, figs, grapes, wheat, barley.
Life and Economy
Agriculture: cultivation of fruits, cereals, and vineyards for wine production.
Horticulture and floriculture thrive due to mild winters.
Significant agro-industries, wine-making, olive oil extraction.
Other activities: mining (e.g., iron, copper in Mediterranean Europe), engineering industries, and tourism.
Mediterranean coasts (e.g., French Riviera, Greek Islands) are major global tourist destinations.
Key Features of Mediterranean Climate
| Aspect | Characteristic |
|---|---|
| Latitude | 30º–40º on western margins of continents |
| Summer | Hot, dry, trade-wind influence |
| Winter | Mild, wet, westerly influence |
| Rainfall | 35–90 cm annually, mostly in winter |
| Vegetation | Evergreen shrubs, citrus fruits, olives, grapes |
| Economy | Fruit cultivation, wine, olive oil, tourism |
Mains Key Points
Mediterranean climate is agriculturally significant due to fruit and wine production.
Unique seasonal contrast: summer drought and winter rain.
Plays a key role in world horticulture, viticulture, and agro-industries.
Tourism in Mediterranean Basin is among the largest contributors to regional economy.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Mediterranean climate = hot dry summers + mild wet winters.
Also called 'Orchards of the World' due to citrus fruit cultivation.
Sirocco winds are typical hot desert winds affecting Mediterranean Europe.
Found on western margins of continents at 30º–40º latitudes.
Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
Key Point
The Steppe climate is marked by hot summers, cold winters, and low rainfall, supporting temperate grasslands that serve as the world’s wheat and maize granaries.
The Steppe climate is marked by hot summers, cold winters, and low rainfall, supporting temperate grasslands that serve as the world’s wheat and maize granaries.
Detailed Notes (30 points)
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Distribution
Found in mid-latitudes, away from Mediterranean regions.
Located in the interiors of continents, e.g., Eurasian steppes extending from the Black Sea coast to the Altai Mountains.
Other regions include North America, South America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
# Temperate Grasslands and their Regional Names
Puszta – Hungary and surrounding areas.
Prairies – North America (between the Rockies and the Great Lakes).
Pampas – Argentina and Uruguay (rain-shadow effect).
Bush-Veld – North-South Africa (more tropical).
High Veldts – South-South Africa (more temperate).
Downs – Murray-Darling Basin of Southern Australia.
Canterbury Plains – New Zealand.
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: Extreme continental climate.
– Hot summers: 18°C to 20°C on average.
– Cold winters, harsher in Northern Hemisphere steppes; less extreme in Southern Hemisphere.
Rainfall: 25–75 cm annually, average ~45 cm.
– Peak rainfall in June–July (summer).
– Winters: ~2.5 cm precipitation, often snow, from westerly winds.
– Southern Hemisphere steppes receive slightly more rainfall due to maritime influence.
Natural Vegetation
Dominated by grasses: sparse, non-woody, drought-resistant species.
Trees: rare, except near rivers or in transition zones with higher rainfall (conifers appear towards higher latitudes).
Farmers often plant rows of trees as windbreaks around cultivated land.
Life and Economy
Extensive mechanized agriculture dominates.
Known as the 'granaries of the world' due to large-scale wheat production.
Maize cultivation common in warmer, more humid steppe areas.
Cattle and sheep ranching important in regions like Pampas and Prairies.
Sparse population density, but highly commercialized farming.
Regional Names of Temperate Grasslands
| Region | Local Name |
|---|---|
| Hungary | Puszta |
| North America | Prairies |
| Argentina & Uruguay | Pampas |
| North-South Africa | Bush-Veld |
| South-South Africa | High Veldts |
| Southern Australia | Downs |
| New Zealand | Canterbury Plains |
Mains Key Points
Steppe regions exemplify continental climate with extreme summers and winters.
They are agriculturally significant due to mechanized wheat and maize farming.
Sparse vegetation and rainfall make them semi-arid transition zones.
Support pastoralism and agro-industries, contributing heavily to global food supply.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Steppe = 'World’s Wheat Granaries' due to large-scale wheat cultivation.
Rainfall ~45 cm; more in Southern Hemisphere steppes.
Regional names: Prairies (NA), Pampas (SA), Downs (Australia).
Vegetation: tall grasses in rainy season, dry grassland in winter.
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate
Key Point
This climate occurs along the east coasts between 20°–35° latitudes in both hemispheres. It is marked by hot, humid summers, cool to cold winters, year-round rainfall (varies by subtype), and supports intensive agriculture and diverse forests.
This climate occurs along the east coasts between 20°–35° latitudes in both hemispheres. It is marked by hot, humid summers, cool to cold winters, year-round rainfall (varies by subtype), and supports intensive agriculture and diverse forests.
Detailed Notes (30 points)
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Distribution
Found along east coasts in both hemispheres between 20º–35º latitudes.
China Type – Most of China, southern Japan.
Gulf Type – Southeastern USA, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean.
Natal Type – New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa), Paraná-Paraguay-Uruguay Basin (South America).
Climatic Features
Hot, humid summers; cold, dry winters (except Natal type with humid winters).
Temperatures range between 4°C (winter) and 25°C (summer).
Occasionally affected by polar cold waves, with rare frost events.
Rainfall
Annual rainfall: 60–150 cm, well-distributed throughout the year.
Summer: Convective & orographic rains; cyclonic storms and typhoons in coastal Asia.
Winter: Long showers due to depressions.
Moisture brought by subtropical anticyclones and coastal trade winds.
Natural Vegetation
Mixture of evergreen and deciduous forests.
Lowlands: hardwood species like oak, camphor, and eucalyptus.
Highlands: softwood conifers (pine, cypress).
Regional forest wealth:
– China & Japan: oak, camphor, mulberry (silk industry).
– South America: Paraná pine, quebracho (tannin source).
– Australia: eucalyptus forests.
– Natal: palm trees; Gulf USA: inland deciduous forests.
Life and Economy
Highly productive agriculture region.
USA (Gulf type): maize, cotton, fruits, tobacco.
China (China type): rice, tea, mulberries (sericulture).
South America (Natal type): coffee, corn, sugarcane.
Australia: dairy farming in New South Wales & Victoria, wheat, maize.
Important industrial base due to raw material availability from agriculture and forestry.
Subtypes of Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate
| Subtype | Region | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| China Type | China, Southern Japan | Temperate monsoons, wet summers, dry winters |
| Gulf Type | Southeastern USA | Atlantic influence, humid summers, rainfall year-round |
| Natal Type | South Africa, SE Brazil, NSW Australia | Year-round rainfall, humid winters |
Mains Key Points
This climate type sustains some of the world’s most productive agricultural systems.
Monsoon circulation and trade winds create year-round rainfall, with seasonal variations.
China type is crucial for rice and sericulture; Gulf type for cotton and tobacco; Natal type for coffee and sugarcane.
Forests (hardwood and conifers) support timber and industries.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Warm temperate eastern margin climate = 'China type climate'.
Natal type differs with humid winters due to trade wind rainfall.
China type supports rice, tea, and mulberry (sericulture).
Gulf type supports cotton, maize, tobacco farming.
Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate
Key Point
This climate, also known as the 'British Type', is dominated by year-round westerlies and cyclonic activity, with mild summers, cool winters, and uniform rainfall. It supports deciduous hardwood forests and highly industrialized economies.
This climate, also known as the 'British Type', is dominated by year-round westerlies and cyclonic activity, with mild summers, cool winters, and uniform rainfall. It supports deciduous hardwood forests and highly industrialized economies.
Detailed Notes (20 points)
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Distribution
Influenced year-round by prevailing westerlies and cyclonic activity.
Found in north-western Europe (northern/western France, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, west Norway, British Isles).
Also present in northwest Siberia, southern Chile, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
High cyclonic activity typical of Britain, hence called 'British-type'.
Climatic Conditions
Annual average temperature: 5°C to 15°C with small annual range.
Summers: Mild, rarely exceeding 18°C.
Winters: Cool, moderated by oceanic influence, not extremely cold.
Rainfall: Well-distributed year-round, often peaking in autumn/winter.
Rainfall decreases from west (coast) to east (interior).
Natural Vegetation
Dominated by deciduous forests, shedding leaves to withstand frost/snow.
Common species: oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, poplar, hornbeam.
Deciduous hardwoods valued for fuel, furniture, construction, and industrial use.
Life and Economy
Region of early and significant industrial development (Industrial Revolution heartland).
Major industries: machinery, chemicals, textiles, shipbuilding, and heavy engineering.
Fishing is important in Britain, Norway, and British Columbia due to rich marine grounds.
Fertile soils and mild climate support mixed farming—crops like wheat, barley, oats, and livestock (dairy and sheep farming).
Key Features of Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate
| Aspect | Characteristic |
|---|---|
| Temperature | 5°C–15°C, mild summers, cool winters |
| Rainfall | Uniform year-round, peaks in autumn/winter |
| Vegetation | Deciduous forests (oak, elm, beech, birch) |
| Economy | Industrial hub, fishing, mixed farming |
Mains Key Points
This region's climate fosters both industrialization and productive agriculture.
Deciduous forests supply hardwoods essential for furniture, fuel, and industries.
Fishing is a vital livelihood due to nutrient-rich seas in high latitudes.
Cyclonic rainfall ensures water availability for year-round farming and industries.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Known as 'British Type Climate' due to its presence in Britain and NW Europe.
Uniform rainfall year-round distinguishes it from Mediterranean climate (dry summer).
Dominated by deciduous hardwood forests—important UPSC MCQ point.
Industrial Revolution originated in this climatic region.
Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
Key Point
This climate is confined to the Northern Hemisphere, with severe winters, short summers, and coniferous taiga vegetation. It is a global hub of softwood forestry but supports very limited agriculture due to extreme cold.
This climate is confined to the Northern Hemisphere, with severe winters, short summers, and coniferous taiga vegetation. It is a global hub of softwood forestry but supports very limited agriculture due to extreme cold.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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Distribution
Found only in the Northern Hemisphere, where landmasses extend widely in east–west direction.
Prominent in Siberia, Canada, and parts of northern Eurasia around the Arctic Circle.
Absent in the Southern Hemisphere due to narrow landmasses and strong moderating oceanic effects.
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: Extremely cold winters (Siberia is known as Earth's 'Cold Pole') and short, cool summers.
Spring and autumn are very short transitional seasons.
Annual average temperatures remain below freezing for most months.
Precipitation: Limited, generally 15–25 inches annually, mostly as snow.
Continentality is high, with large annual range of temperature.
Natural Vegetation
Dominated by coniferous forests (Taiga biome).
Common species include pines (White, Red, Scots, Jack), firs (Douglas, Balsam), spruce, and larch.
Trees are adapted to cold with needle-like leaves and conical shape to shed snow.
Life and Economy
Forestry is the main economic activity.
Major producers: Russia, USA, Canada, and Scandinavian countries.
Softwood uses: construction, furniture, matches, pulp, paper, rayon.
Canada produces nearly half of the world’s newsprint output.
Agriculture is extremely limited due to frozen soils (permafrost) and harsh climate.
Local populations (Samoyeds, Yakuts, some Canadian communities) depend on hunting, trapping, fishing, and fur trade.
Key Features of Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
| Aspect | Characteristic |
|---|---|
| Temperature | Severe winters, short cool summers, very high annual range |
| Precipitation | 15–25 inches annually, mostly as snow |
| Vegetation | Coniferous forests (pine, spruce, fir, larch) |
| Economy | Forestry, newsprint, hunting, fishing, limited agriculture |
Mains Key Points
Harsh continental climate creates challenges for agriculture but favors coniferous forestry.
Key to global softwood supply chain, especially for paper and construction industries.
Human settlements adapt through hunting, trapping, fishing, and forestry-based livelihoods.
Permafrost and extreme cold limit infrastructure development and agriculture.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Known as Taiga or Boreal climate; supports the largest coniferous forest biome.
Siberia is called 'Cold Pole of the Earth'.
Major global source of softwood (used in paper, rayon, timber).
Agriculture is almost absent due to permafrost.
Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate
Key Point
This climate features cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers with summer-rainfall dominance. Found in northeast North America and east Asia, it supports forestry, pulp and paper industries, hardy agriculture, and rich fishing activities.
This climate features cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers with summer-rainfall dominance. Found in northeast North America and east Asia, it supports forestry, pulp and paper industries, hardy agriculture, and rich fishing activities.
Detailed Notes (18 points)
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Distribution
Northeastern North America: eastern Canada, Maritime Provinces, New England, Newfoundland.
East coast of Asia: eastern Siberia, northern China, Manchuria, Korea, northern Japan.
Absent in the Southern Hemisphere due to limited landmass beyond 40°S latitude.
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: Long, cold winters with heavy snowfall, temperatures well below freezing.
Summers: Hot and humid, 21°C to 27°C, sometimes resembling tropical conditions due to absence of cooling Arctic currents.
Precipitation: 30–60 inches annually, with about two-thirds of rainfall in summer.
Winter: Relatively dry because of prevailing dry westerlies.
Natural Vegetation
Cold temperate forests, thriving in moist summers and foggy conditions.
Dominant species: Oak, beech, maple, birch around 50°N latitude.
Vegetation adapted to both severe cold and warm, wet summers.
Life and Economy
Forestry: Wood industries (pulp, paper, timber) are major economic drivers.
Agriculture: Limited but possible in valleys and maritime-influenced areas; hardy crops suited to short summers.
Nova Scotia’s Annapolis Valley is famous worldwide for apple production.
Fishing: Rich grounds along northeastern coasts support large fishing industries (cod, herring, etc.).
Key Features of Laurentian Climate
| Aspect | Characteristic |
|---|---|
| Temperature | Cold snowy winters, hot humid summers (21–27°C) |
| Precipitation | 30–60 inches annually, two-thirds in summer |
| Vegetation | Cold temperate forests (oak, beech, maple, birch) |
| Economy | Forestry, paper industry, hardy agriculture, rich fishing |
Mains Key Points
This climate demonstrates strong seasonality, influencing agriculture and settlement patterns.
Forestry and related industries dominate due to rich cold temperate forests.
Fishing is a vital economic activity, especially in North Atlantic regions.
Apple and hardy crop cultivation show adaptation to short growing seasons.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Laurentian climate shows strong continentality with extreme seasonal contrasts.
Two-thirds of rainfall occurs in summer; winters are relatively dry.
Famous for paper and pulp industries due to abundant forests.
Nova Scotia’s Annapolis Valley is noted for apple cultivation.
Arctic or Polar Climate
Key Point
Polar climate is marked by extremely low temperatures, long harsh winters, and short cool summers. Found mainly in Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and Arctic Eurasia, it supports tundra vegetation and indigenous communities adapted to extreme cold.
Polar climate is marked by extremely low temperatures, long harsh winters, and short cool summers. Found mainly in Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and Arctic Eurasia, it supports tundra vegetation and indigenous communities adapted to extreme cold.
Detailed Notes (17 points)
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Distribution
Found north of the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere.
Major regions: Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, Arctic coast of Eurasia.
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: Warmest month (June) rarely exceeds 10°C.
Winters: Long, dark, and extremely cold; mid-winter averages between -3°C and -5°C or lower in interiors.
Summers: Brief and cool, lasting 1–3 months.
Rainfall: Very low, mostly in the form of snow; convectional rainfall is absent due to low evaporation.
Natural Vegetation
Characterized by tundra vegetation due to permafrost and cold.
Vegetation limited to mosses, lichens, sedges, grasses, dwarf shrubs.
No trees due to frozen soil and short growing season.
Life and Economy
Indigenous peoples: Eskimos (Inuit), Lapps (Sámi), Samoyeds, etc.
Economy based on fishing, hunting (seals, whales, reindeer), and fur trapping.
Modern economy includes oil, gas, and mineral exploration in coastal Arctic regions.
Settlements mainly coastal, adapted to harsh environments.
Key Features of Arctic Climate
| Aspect | Characteristic |
|---|---|
| Temperature | Very low; summers <10°C, winters extremely cold |
| Precipitation | Low, mostly snow |
| Vegetation | Tundra: mosses, lichens, grasses, dwarf shrubs |
| Human Adaptation | Eskimos, Lapps, Samoyeds; fishing, hunting, reindeer herding |
Mains Key Points
Arctic climate highlights human adaptation to extreme cold through subsistence lifestyles.
Tundra biome supports minimal biodiversity but is ecologically significant.
Economy transitioning from traditional activities to resource exploitation.
Polar regions are critical for studying climate change and global warming impacts.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Arctic climate has tundra vegetation with no trees.
Winters are extremely cold and long, summers are short and cool.
Economy is traditionally based on hunting, fishing, and fur trade.
Modern Arctic economy includes oil, gas, and mineral exploitation.
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