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Stone age
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Chalcolithic age(Copper Age)
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Indus Valley Civilization
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Vedic age
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The Mahajanapadas
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Buddhism and Jainism
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Mauryan Empire
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Post-Mauryan Period
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Gupta Period
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Post-Gupta Period
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Sangam Age
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Chapter 10: Post-Gupta Period
Chapter Test16 topics•Estimated reading: 48 minutes
Post-Gupta Period: Introduction and Sources
Key Point
The Post-Gupta period (c. 6th–7th century CE) began after the decline of the Gupta Empire. It was marked by political fragmentation, the rise of regional kingdoms, foreign invasions (Hunas), and the emergence of new dynasties like the Vakatakas, Pushyabhutis, and Maitrakas. Despite political instability, this period saw continuity in culture, religion, art, and literature.
The Post-Gupta period (c. 6th–7th century CE) began after the decline of the Gupta Empire. It was marked by political fragmentation, the rise of regional kingdoms, foreign invasions (Hunas), and the emergence of new dynasties like the Vakatakas, Pushyabhutis, and Maitrakas. Despite political instability, this period saw continuity in culture, religion, art, and literature.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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Introduction
• Time frame: c. 6th–7th century CE.
• Political fragmentation after Gupta decline → rise of regional powers.
• Foreign invasions (Hunas) weakened north India.
• Regional dynasties: Vakatakas (Deccan), Maitrakas (Saurashtra), Pushyabhutis (Thanesar), Maukharis (Kannauj), Gaudas (Bengal), etc.
• This era acted as a transition to early medieval India (rise of feudalism, regional kingdoms).
• Culturally, classical traditions of Gupta period continued in literature, art, temple architecture, and religion.
Sources of Post-Gupta Period
• **Inscriptions:** Land grant copper plates (charters) recording donations to Brahmanas and temples. Examples: Damodarpur plates (Guptas), grants of Maitrakas, Vakatakas.
• **Literary Works:** Banabhatta’s *Harshacharita* (biography of Harsha), Xuanzang’s (Hiuen Tsang) accounts, Kalhana’s *Rajatarangini* (later).
• **Religious Texts:** Puranas (e.g., Vishnu Purana, Markandeya Purana) which contain genealogies and descriptions of dynasties.
• **Foreign Accounts:** Chinese pilgrims like Fa-Hien (Gupta era), Xuanzang (Harsha era) provide socio-religious details.
• **Archaeological Sources:** Temples, sculptures, Ajanta caves (Vakataka patronage), stupas, coins.
• **Coins:** Regional dynasties issued coins; Hunas imitated Gupta coinage.
Sources of Post-Gupta Period
| Source | Examples / Details |
|---|---|
| Inscriptions | Copper plate grants (Vakatakas, Maitrakas, Guptas) |
| Literary Works | Banabhatta’s Harshacharita, Puranas, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini |
| Foreign Accounts | Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), Fa-Hien |
| Archaeology | Ajanta caves, temples, sculptures |
| Coins | Regional coinage, Huna imitations of Gupta coins |
Fun Facts
The Post-Gupta age is sometimes called the 'Age of Smaller Kingdoms'.
Xuanzang (7th century) provides detailed descriptions of Harsha’s empire, monasteries, and universities like Nalanda.
Most land grants of this period were recorded on copper plates, a practice that became common in early medieval India.
Ajanta paintings (Caves 16 & 17) of the Vakatakas are considered masterpieces of classical Indian art.
Mains Key Points
The Post-Gupta period marked political fragmentation and rise of regional kingdoms.
Sources include inscriptions, literary works, Puranas, foreign accounts, archaeology, and coins.
Copper plate land grants became a defining feature of this period.
Despite political decline, cultural and religious life flourished with Ajanta, Nalanda, and Puranic literature.
This period prepared the ground for early medieval political structures like feudalism.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Banabhatta → Harshacharita (source for Harsha’s life).
Xuanzang → visited during Harsha’s reign.
Copper plate inscriptions → common for land grants in Post-Gupta era.
Ajanta caves → developed under Vakataka patronage.
Maitraka Dynasty
Key Point
The Maitrakas ruled Saurashtra (modern Gujarat) after the decline of the Guptas (c. 475–776 CE). Their capital was at Vallabhi, which became a major cultural and educational center, comparable to Nalanda.
The Maitrakas ruled Saurashtra (modern Gujarat) after the decline of the Guptas (c. 475–776 CE). Their capital was at Vallabhi, which became a major cultural and educational center, comparable to Nalanda.
Detailed Notes (19 points)
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Political History
• Founder: Bhatarka (c. 475 CE), a former Gupta governor in Saurashtra who declared independence after Gupta decline.
• The Maitrakas ruled from Vallabhi (near Bhavnagar, Gujarat).
• Dhruvasena I Baladitya (early ruler) is said to have been a contemporary of Harshavardhana.
• Dhruvasena II Baladitya (642 CE) welcomed the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang).
• Vallabhi became a powerful kingdom, controlling Saurashtra and parts of Malwa.
• The dynasty lasted till about 776 CE when it was destroyed by Arab invasions.
Administration
• The Maitrakas followed Gupta-style administration but with increasing feudal tendencies.
• They issued numerous copper plate land grants to Brahmanas and temples.
• Provincial and village administration gained autonomy.
Religion and Culture
• Maitrakas initially followed Shaivism but later patronized Vaishnavism, Jainism, and Buddhism.
• Vallabhi became a major center of Buddhist learning, rivaling Nalanda.
• Xuanzang described Vallabhi as a flourishing educational hub with thousands of monks.
• Jainism also flourished under Maitraka rule.
Decline
• The Maitrakas declined in the 8th century CE due to Arab invasions (from Sindh).
• By 776 CE, their power disappeared from Saurashtra.
Important Rulers of Maitraka Dynasty
| Ruler | Contributions |
|---|---|
| Bhatarka | Founder; former Gupta governor; established independence in Saurashtra |
| Dhruvasena I Baladitya | Contemporary of Harsha; strengthened Vallabhi |
| Dhruvasena II Baladitya | Received Xuanzang; promoted Buddhism at Vallabhi |
| Later Maitrakas | Patronized Jainism and issued numerous land grants |
Fun Facts
Xuanzang described Vallabhi as a university with over 6000 monks and scholars.
Vallabhi University produced many Jain scholars and became a rival to Nalanda.
The Maitrakas blended Gupta traditions with regional culture, making Vallabhi a cosmopolitan city.
Arab invasions from Sindh in the 8th century marked their decline.
Mains Key Points
The Maitrakas rose after Gupta decline, ruling Saurashtra with Vallabhi as capital.
They had close interactions with Harshavardhana and foreign pilgrims like Xuanzang.
Vallabhi became a major educational and cultural hub of western India.
Their inscriptions reflect Gupta influence and growing feudalism.
Their decline came with Arab invasions from Sindh in the 8th century.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Founder → Bhatarka, former Gupta governor.
Capital → Vallabhi (educational hub, rival to Nalanda).
Dhruvasena II Baladitya → welcomed Xuanzang.
Decline → Arab invasions (776 CE).
Maukharis Dynasty
Key Point
The Maukharis rose to prominence in North India during the 6th century CE after the decline of the Guptas. They ruled from Kannauj, which later became the most important political center of early medieval India. They were initially Gupta feudatories but later became independent.
The Maukharis rose to prominence in North India during the 6th century CE after the decline of the Guptas. They ruled from Kannauj, which later became the most important political center of early medieval India. They were initially Gupta feudatories but later became independent.
Detailed Notes (22 points)
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Origin and Rise
• The Maukharis were initially Gupta feudatories in western Uttar Pradesh.
• Later, they established their independence and made Kannauj their capital.
• They frequently clashed with the Later Guptas and the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar.
Political History
• Important rulers: Harivarman (founder), Adityavarman, Ishvaravarman, Sharvavarman, Avantivarman, and Grahavarman.
• Sharvavarman defeated the Later Gupta ruler Damodaragupta.
• Grahavarman (last Maukhari ruler) married Rajyashri, the sister of Harshavardhana (Pushyabhuti dynasty).
• Grahavarman was killed by Devagupta of Malwa, after which Harshavardhana avenged his death and expanded his empire.
Administration and Society
• Followed Gupta model of administration but with rising feudal elements.
• Issued land grants to Brahmanas and temples (recorded in copper plates).
• Promoted Sanskrit literature and Brahmanical religion.
• Society marked by caste rigidity and growth of feudalism.
Religion and Culture
• The Maukharis were patrons of Hinduism, particularly Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
• They also supported Brahmanical rituals and temple construction.
• Jainism and Buddhism were tolerated but declined in their territories.
Decline
• Maukhari power declined after the death of Grahavarman.
• His widow Rajyashri was rescued by her brother Harshavardhana, who absorbed Kannauj into his empire.
• Thus, Kannauj became the capital of Harsha’s kingdom.
Important Rulers of Maukharis
| Ruler | Contributions |
|---|---|
| Harivarman | Founder of the dynasty, established independence |
| Ishvaravarman | Strengthened Maukhari rule, clashed with Later Guptas |
| Sharvavarman | Defeated Later Gupta Damodaragupta |
| Grahavarman | Last ruler; married Rajyashri (Harsha’s sister); killed by Devagupta of Malwa |
Fun Facts
The Maukharis were among the first dynasties to make Kannauj a political center, which remained important for centuries.
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) mentions Kannauj as a great city during Harsha’s reign, which was earlier built up by the Maukharis.
Grahavarman’s marriage with Rajyashri tied the Maukhari destiny with the Pushyabhutis (Harsha’s family).
Their inscriptions and copper plates provide evidence of land grants and political status.
Mains Key Points
The Maukharis rose as an important dynasty in North India after Gupta decline.
They made Kannauj the center of political power.
Their rulers clashed with Later Guptas and Pushyabhutis.
Grahavarman’s marriage linked them to Harshavardhana’s family.
Their fall led to the absorption of Kannauj into Harsha’s empire.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital of Maukharis → Kannauj.
Founder → Harivarman.
Grahavarman → last ruler; married Rajyashri (Harsha’s sister).
Devagupta of Malwa killed Grahavarman → Harsha’s rise followed.
Gauda Dynasty (Bengal)
Key Point
The Gaudas ruled Bengal during the Post-Gupta period (6th–7th century CE). Their most important ruler was Shashanka, who consolidated Bengal as a strong kingdom and played a decisive role in eastern Indian politics against Harshavardhana and Bhaskaravarman of Assam.
The Gaudas ruled Bengal during the Post-Gupta period (6th–7th century CE). Their most important ruler was Shashanka, who consolidated Bengal as a strong kingdom and played a decisive role in eastern Indian politics against Harshavardhana and Bhaskaravarman of Assam.
Detailed Notes (19 points)
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Rulers of the Gauda Dynasty
• Early Gauda chiefs existed after Gupta decline, but they gained prominence under Shashanka.
• Main rulers:
- Krishnagupta or early Gauda chiefs (semi-legendary) → laid foundation in Bengal after Gupta decline.
- Shashanka (c. 606–637 CE) → greatest ruler, consolidated Bengal, extended rule into Bihar & Orissa, capital at Karnasubarna.
- Successors (names uncertain) → weak rulers after Shashanka’s death; Bengal fragmented.
Contributions of Shashanka
• Established Karnasubarna as capital of Bengal.
• Expanded Gauda kingdom into Magadha, parts of Bihar, and coastal Orissa.
• Resisted Harshavardhana’s attempts to dominate eastern India.
• Entered into rivalry with Bhaskaravarman (Kamarupa/Assam).
• Accused of killing Rajyavardhana (Harsha’s brother).
• Patron of Shaivism; issued coins with Shiva and crescent.
• Allegedly cut down the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya (mentioned by Xuanzang).
• Maintained Bengal’s independence until his death.
Decline
• After Shashanka’s death (c. 637 CE), Gauda power collapsed.
• Harsha and Bhaskaravarman divided Bengal.
• Bengal remained fragmented until the rise of the Palas (8th century CE).
Rulers of the Gauda Dynasty
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Krishnagupta / Early Chiefs | 6th century CE | Laid foundation of Gauda kingdom after Gupta decline |
| Shashanka | c. 606–637 CE | Capital at Karnasubarna; extended Bengal into Bihar & Orissa; resisted Harsha & Bhaskaravarman; patron of Shaivism; issued coins; alleged destruction of Bodhi tree |
| Successors (names unclear) | Post-637 CE | Weak rulers; kingdom fragmented; Bengal later taken by Palas in 8th century |
Important Aspects of Gauda Dynasty
| Ruler/Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Capital | Karnasubarna (near Murshidabad, West Bengal) |
| Shashanka | Most famous ruler; expanded Bengal into Bihar & Orissa |
| Conflict | Rival of Harshavardhana and Bhaskaravarman |
| Religion | Patron of Shaivism; alleged persecution of Buddhism |
| Coins | Depicted Shiva and crescent symbols |
| Decline | After Shashanka’s death, Bengal fragmented until Palas rose |
Fun Facts
Shashanka is often regarded as the **first independent king of Bengal**.
His coins with Shiva and crescent show Bengal’s strong Shaivite traditions.
Xuanzang’s account portrays him negatively as hostile to Buddhism, but this might be biased.
Karnasubarna (capital) later remained important under other dynasties too.
Mains Key Points
The Gaudas under Shashanka consolidated Bengal politically and economically.
Shashanka resisted Harsha’s expansion and asserted Bengal’s independence.
His Shaivite policies shaped Bengal’s religious identity in the 7th century.
Shashanka’s death led to Bengal’s fragmentation until the Palas unified it in the 8th century.
The Gaudas highlight the rise of strong regional powers in the Post-Gupta era.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Shashanka → first major ruler of Bengal; capital at Karnasubarna.
Conflict with Harshavardhana & Bhaskaravarman (Assam).
Religion → Shaivism; coins with Shiva & crescent.
Alleged destruction of Bodhi tree (Xuanzang’s account).
Pushyabhuti Dynasty (Thanesar) – Harshavardhana
Key Point
The Pushyabhutis ruled from Thanesar (Haryana) and rose to prominence in the 6th–7th century CE. Their greatest ruler was Harshavardhana (606–647 CE), who united much of North India after the fall of the Guptas and became a patron of religion, culture, and literature.
The Pushyabhutis ruled from Thanesar (Haryana) and rose to prominence in the 6th–7th century CE. Their greatest ruler was Harshavardhana (606–647 CE), who united much of North India after the fall of the Guptas and became a patron of religion, culture, and literature.
Detailed Notes (28 points)
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Origin and Early Rulers
• Pushyabhutis were originally a minor dynasty ruling in Thanesar (modern Kurukshetra district, Haryana).
• Naravardhana and Rajyavardhana were early rulers.
• Prabhakaravardhana (Harsha’s father) strengthened the dynasty and resisted Hunas.
• Rajyavardhana (elder brother of Harsha) succeeded him but was killed by Devagupta of Malwa.
Harshavardhana (606–647 CE)
• Ascended throne at age 16 after brother Rajyavardhana’s death.
• Married off his sister Rajyashri to the Maukhari ruler Grahavarman (later killed by Devagupta of Malwa).
• Harsha rescued Rajyashri with help of his ally Bhaskaravarman of Assam.
• Shifted capital from Thanesar to Kannauj, making it the political center of early medieval North India.
• Expanded empire over Punjab, UP, Bihar, Bengal, and Odisha; southern campaign stopped by Pulakeshin II (Chalukya ruler of Deccan).
Administration
• Followed monarchical rule with feudal elements.
• Issued land grants recorded in inscriptions and copper plates.
• Bureaucracy included ministers, governors, village officials.
• Assemblies (samiti, gana) lost importance compared to Gupta age.
Religion and Culture
• Initially a Shaivite, later became a patron of Buddhism under influence of Xuanzang.
• Organized great Buddhist assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag.
• Patronized Nalanda University and supported Buddhist monks.
• Tolerant towards all religions, supported Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism also.
Literature
• Harsha himself wrote plays: *Nagananda*, *Ratnavali*, *Priyadarshika*.
• His court poet Banabhatta wrote *Harshacharita* (biography of Harsha) and *Kadambari*.
• Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), Chinese pilgrim, visited his court and wrote detailed accounts of India.
Decline
• Harsha died in 647 CE without a direct heir.
• His empire disintegrated soon after, leading to political fragmentation in North India.
Important Rulers of Pushyabhuti Dynasty
| Ruler | Contributions |
|---|---|
| Prabhakaravardhana | Strengthened dynasty; resisted Hunas |
| Rajyavardhana | Killed by Devagupta of Malwa; elder brother of Harsha |
| Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) | Shifted capital to Kannauj; expanded empire; patron of Buddhism, Nalanda, literature; resisted by Pulakeshin II |
Fun Facts
Harsha shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj, making it the political hub of North India for centuries.
Xuanzang stayed in India for 15 years and praised Harsha’s rule as prosperous and tolerant.
Banabhatta’s Harshacharita is one of the earliest historical biographies in Sanskrit.
Harsha was called ‘Siladitya’ in some inscriptions and Chinese records.
Mains Key Points
The Pushyabhutis rose from Thanesar, becoming powerful under Prabhakaravardhana and Harsha.
Harshavardhana expanded his empire across North India but failed to conquer the Deccan due to Pulakeshin II.
Harsha was a great patron of religion and culture, supporting Buddhism, Nalanda, and Sanskrit literature.
He himself was a playwright, and his court was a center of learning with scholars like Banabhatta.
Harsha’s death in 647 CE without an heir led to political fragmentation, paving way for regional kingdoms.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital shift → Thanesar → Kannauj under Harsha.
Battle of Narmada (c. 618 CE) → Harsha defeated by Pulakeshin II.
Banabhatta → Harshacharita (biography of Harsha).
Xuanzang → visited Harsha’s court; account in Si-yu-ki.
Harsha wrote → Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika.
Administration of Harshavardhana
Key Point
Harsha’s administration followed the Gupta model but had growing feudal elements. It was highly monarchical but supported by feudatories (samantas). His empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages, and maintained a strong army. Land grants to officials and religious institutions became common.
Harsha’s administration followed the Gupta model but had growing feudal elements. It was highly monarchical but supported by feudatories (samantas). His empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages, and maintained a strong army. Land grants to officials and religious institutions became common.
Detailed Notes (37 points)
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Central Administration
• King (Harsha) → supreme authority; combined political, military, and religious roles.
• Titles: ‘Siladitya’ (stone of the earth), ‘Parama-Maheshwara’ (great devotee of Shiva).
• Ministers (mantrins) and officials assisted the king in administration.
• Land grants recorded in copper plates show bureaucratic functions.
Important Officials
• Mahasamanta → high feudatory lord, often governors or military chiefs.
• Samanta → subordinate rulers/feudatories who paid tribute, supplied troops.
• Kumaramatya → high-ranking officer, equivalent to provincial governor.
• Ayuktas → administrators of districts.
• Gramika → village headman.
• Skandapati → head of the army (commander-in-chief).
• Purohita → royal priest, advisor in religious matters.
Provincial Administration
• Empire divided into provinces (*bhukti*), governed by *uparikas* (provincial governors).
• Provinces further divided into districts (*vishaya*) and villages (*grama*).
• Villages were self-sufficient units with their own assemblies.
• Land grants reduced state control as feudatories gained autonomy.
Local and Municipal Administration
• Local officials (*visayapatis*, *gramikas*) collected revenue and maintained law & order.
• Towns administered by guilds (*shrenis*) and municipal officers.
• Guilds played a major role in trade and urban economy.
Revenue Administration
• Land revenue was the main source of income (1/6th of produce).
• Other taxes: customs duties, fines, tributes from feudatories.
• Widespread practice of land grants (agrahara) to Brahmanas, officials, and temples.
• This weakened the central treasury and promoted feudalism.
Judicial Administration
• The king was the supreme judge.
• Dharmashastras and Smritis guided law and order.
• Harsha was known for mild punishments and benevolence.
• Xuanzang noted that capital punishment was rare.
Army
• Strong military organization but smaller compared to Mauryas/Guptas.
• Xuanzang: Harsha maintained 60,000 cavalry, 50,000 infantry, and 5,000 elephants.
• Samantas were bound to supply troops when required.
• Navy less important; empire largely land-based.
Officials in Harsha’s Administration
| Official | Role |
|---|---|
| Mahasamanta | High feudatory, provincial governor or chief |
| Samanta | Feudatory ruler, supplied tribute and troops |
| Kumaramatya | High-ranking officer, provincial administration |
| Ayukta | District officer |
| Gramika | Village headman |
| Skandapati | Commander-in-chief of army |
| Purohita | Royal priest, religious advisor |
Fun Facts
Xuanzang observed that Harsha’s empire was prosperous, with mild punishments and rarely any death penalty.
Harsha’s army was strong in cavalry and elephants but lacked a navy.
Copper plate grants from Harsha’s period reveal the rise of feudal lords (samantas).
Unlike Mauryas, Harsha’s administration relied heavily on personal charisma and alliances.
Mains Key Points
Harsha’s administration was a continuation of the Gupta model but with more feudal elements.
Samantas (feudatories) played a crucial role in politics and military.
Land grants to officials and Brahmanas weakened central revenue but increased local autonomy.
Xuanzang’s account highlights prosperity, mild justice, and efficient governance.
Despite efficiency, lack of centralization led to decline after Harsha’s death.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Harsha’s capital → Kannauj.
Revenue → 1/6th of produce; many land grants (agrahara).
Army → 60,000 cavalry, 50,000 infantry, 5,000 elephants (Xuanzang).
Officials → Mahasamanta, Kumaramatya, Ayukta, Gramika, Skandapati.
Vakataka Dynasty
Key Point
The Vakatakas ruled the Deccan (mainly Vidarbha in Maharashtra) between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE. They were contemporaries and allies of the Guptas. The dynasty is especially remembered for its cultural contributions, including patronage of Ajanta caves.
The Vakatakas ruled the Deccan (mainly Vidarbha in Maharashtra) between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE. They were contemporaries and allies of the Guptas. The dynasty is especially remembered for its cultural contributions, including patronage of Ajanta caves.
Detailed Notes (26 points)
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Origin and Rise
• The Vakatakas emerged after the decline of the Satavahanas in the Deccan.
• Their core region was Vidarbha (modern Nagpur, Maharashtra).
• Founded by Vindhyashakti (c. 250 CE).
• Their inscriptions are found at Ajanta, Mandhal, and Amaravati.
Political History
• Pravarasena I (c. 270–330 CE): Greatest early ruler; performed Ashvamedha sacrifice and took the title of Samrat. Expanded the kingdom widely.
• Rudrasena I, II, and III: Successors who consolidated rule in Vidarbha.
• Prithivisena I and II: Ruled during the Gupta alliance period.
• Narendrasena (mid-5th century CE): Faced invasions from Nalas and Vishnukundins.
• Harishena (c. 475–500 CE): Last great ruler, patron of Ajanta caves, extended empire to Malwa and Gujarat.
Gupta Alliance
• Vakatakas allied with the Guptas through marriage.
• Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya), married Rudrasena II.
• She acted as regent for her minor sons after Rudrasena II’s death, promoting Gupta influence in Deccan.
Administration and Economy
• Monarchical system, with rulers performing Vedic sacrifices.
• Land grants (agrahara) to Brahmanas were common.
• Agriculture was the economic base; trade flourished through Deccan routes.
Religion and Culture
• The Vakatakas were staunch Brahmanical rulers, performing yajnas and supporting Vedic rituals.
• Patronized Shaivism and Vaishnavism, but also supported Buddhism.
• Harishena’s patronage of Ajanta caves (magnificent Buddhist murals and sculptures) reflects religious tolerance.
Decline
• After Harishena’s death, the dynasty weakened.
• Power was absorbed by successors like the Chalukyas and Vishnukundins in the 6th century CE.
Important Rulers of Vakataka Dynasty
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Vindhyashakti | c. 250 CE | Founder of the dynasty; established base in Vidarbha |
| Pravarasena I | c. 270–330 CE | Greatest ruler; performed Ashvamedha; took title Samrat |
| Rudrasena II | 4th century CE | Married Gupta princess Prabhavatigupta, creating Gupta alliance |
| Prabhavatigupta (regent) | Early 5th century CE | Ruled as regent for sons; spread Gupta influence in Deccan |
| Narendrasena | Mid-5th century CE | Defended against invasions by Nalas and Vishnukundins |
| Harishena | c. 475–500 CE | Last great ruler; patron of Ajanta caves; extended rule to Malwa & Gujarat |
Fun Facts
Ajanta caves reached their artistic zenith under Harishena of the Vakatakas.
Prabhavatigupta, a Gupta princess, effectively ruled the Deccan as a regent.
Vakatakas performed Vedic sacrifices, unlike the Satavahanas who patronized Buddhism more strongly.
The dynasty linked northern Gupta culture with southern Deccan traditions.
Mains Key Points
The Vakatakas succeeded the Satavahanas and ruled Vidarbha (Maharashtra).
They allied with the Guptas, creating north-south cultural integration.
Pravarasena I established imperial status with Ashvamedha sacrifice.
Harishena’s patronage of Ajanta marks the high point of classical Indian art.
Their decline opened the way for Chalukyas and Vishnukundins.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Founder → Vindhyashakti.
Greatest ruler → Pravarasena I (Ashvamedha, title Samrat).
Gupta link → Marriage of Rudrasena II with Prabhavatigupta.
Harishena → patron of Ajanta caves.
Core region → Vidarbha (Maharashtra).
Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)
Key Point
The Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th century CE) were a powerful Deccan dynasty with their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka). They created a strong empire, engaged in wars with the Pallavas and Rashtrakutas, and left behind remarkable rock-cut and structural temples.
The Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th century CE) were a powerful Deccan dynasty with their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka). They created a strong empire, engaged in wars with the Pallavas and Rashtrakutas, and left behind remarkable rock-cut and structural temples.
Detailed Notes (26 points)
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Origin and Rise
• The Chalukyas rose in the 6th century CE in the Deccan, after the decline of the Vakatakas.
• Their capital was Vatapi (Badami, Karnataka).
• They claimed descent from the ‘Chulukyas’ (mythical lineage linked to Brahma’s chuluka or water pot).
• Early kings consolidated power in Karnataka and Andhra region.
Political History
• Pulakeshin I (c. 543–566 CE): Founder; established control over Badami.
• Kirtivarman I (566–597 CE): Expanded kingdom into Maharashtra, Konkan, and Andhra.
• Mangalesha (597–609 CE): Consolidated kingdom; built cave temples at Badami.
• Pulakeshin II (609–642 CE): Greatest ruler; extended empire from Narmada to Tungabhadra. Defeated Harshavardhana on the Narmada (618 CE). Engaged in long wars with Pallava king Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarman I. Narasimhavarman later defeated him and captured Vatapi (642 CE).
• Vikramaditya I (655–681 CE): Restored Chalukya power after Pallava occupation.
• Vinayaditya and Vijayaditya I (7th century CE): Stabilized kingdom; maintained balance with Pallavas.
• Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE): Defeated Pallavas; patron of architecture (built temples at Pattadakal).
• Kirtivarman II (746–753 CE): Last Badami Chalukya ruler; defeated by Dantidurga, founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Administration
• Monarchy supported by feudatories and officials.
• Provinces (Rashtras) → Districts (Vishayas) → Villages (Gramas).
• Village assemblies managed local affairs; trade guilds played important role.
• Land grants (agrahara) to Brahmanas and temples were common.
Religion and Culture
• The Chalukyas were Hindus, patrons of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, but also supported Jainism and Buddhism.
• Badami cave temples (Shaiva, Vaishnava, Jain, Buddhist) show religious tolerance.
• Vikramaditya II patronized Pallava-style architecture, blending northern Nagara and southern Dravida styles at Pattadakal.
Decline
• The Chalukyas declined in the mid-8th century CE.
• Kirtivarman II was defeated by Dantidurga (Rashtrakuta), marking the end of Badami Chalukya rule.
Important Rulers of Chalukyas of Badami
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Pulakeshin I | 543–566 CE | Founder; consolidated power at Badami |
| Kirtivarman I | 566–597 CE | Expanded kingdom into Maharashtra, Andhra |
| Mangalesha | 597–609 CE | Built Badami cave temples; strengthened rule |
| Pulakeshin II | 609–642 CE | Greatest ruler; defeated Harsha; fought Pallavas; lost Vatapi to Narasimhavarman I |
| Vikramaditya I | 655–681 CE | Restored Chalukya power after Pallava invasion |
| Vikramaditya II | 733–746 CE | Defeated Pallavas; built temples at Pattadakal |
| Kirtivarman II | 746–753 CE | Last ruler; defeated by Rashtrakuta Dantidurga |
Fun Facts
Pulakeshin II’s victory over Harsha is recorded in the Aihole inscription by his court poet Ravikirti.
Narasimhavarman Pallava’s capture of Vatapi in 642 CE is remembered as a major southern triumph.
Pattadakal (UNESCO site) showcases fusion of Nagara (north) and Dravida (south) temple architecture.
Badami caves include Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist shrines — rare religious tolerance in Deccan.
Mains Key Points
The Chalukyas of Badami unified much of Deccan under their rule.
Pulakeshin II was their greatest king, known for defeating Harsha and resisting northern expansion.
Their conflict with Pallavas defined Deccan politics for centuries.
They were patrons of art and architecture, seen in Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal.
Their decline opened the way for Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital → Vatapi (Badami, Karnataka).
Pulakeshin II → defeated Harsha (618 CE); fought Pallavas.
Aihole inscription → Ravikirti (Pulakeshin II’s court poet).
Vikramaditya II → built Pattadakal temples.
Decline → Rashtrakuta Dantidurga (753 CE).
Pallavas of Kanchi
Key Point
The Pallavas (c. 4th–9th century CE) ruled from Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu). They were great rivals of the Chalukyas of Badami and laid the foundation of Dravidian temple architecture. Their rule marked the beginning of Tamil classical temple culture.
The Pallavas (c. 4th–9th century CE) ruled from Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu). They were great rivals of the Chalukyas of Badami and laid the foundation of Dravidian temple architecture. Their rule marked the beginning of Tamil classical temple culture.
Detailed Notes (27 points)
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Origin and Rise
• The Pallavas emerged in the 4th century CE after the Satavahanas declined.
• Their earliest capital was Kanchi (Kanchipuram), an ancient cultural city.
• Initially, they ruled as feudatories in Andhra but later expanded into Tamil Nadu.
Political History
• Simhavishnu (575–600 CE): Expanded Pallava power into Tamil country; began conflict with Chalukyas.
• Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE): Contemporary of Pulakeshin II; known for rock-cut architecture (Mahabalipuram caves). Converted from Jainism to Shaivism. Lost some territory to Pulakeshin II.
• Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla, 630–668 CE): Defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Vatapi (642 CE). Built the famous Shore Temple and rock-cut monuments at Mahabalipuram. Known as ‘Mamalla’ (great wrestler).
• Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha, 700–728 CE): Built the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram, marking the transition from rock-cut to structural temples.
• Nandivarman II (8th century CE): Restored Pallava power; repelled Chalukyas.
• Decline: By the 9th century, Pallava power declined under pressure from the Pandyas and later Cholas.
Administration
• Monarchical system; supported by feudatories and officials.
• Land grants to Brahmanas and temples (agrahara) were common.
• Local assemblies (sabhas, nagarams) had autonomy in Tamil villages.
Religion and Culture
• Initially patronized Jainism, later became staunch Shaivites and Vaishnavites.
• Promoted Bhakti movement; Alvars and Nayanars flourished during Pallava period.
• Pallava art represents the earliest phase of South Indian temple architecture.
Architecture
• Rock-cut cave temples (Mahendravarman I).
• Monolithic rathas (Pancha Rathas at Mahabalipuram, Narasimhavarman I).
• Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram).
• Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram, Narasimhavarman II).
Decline
• By the late 9th century, Pallava power collapsed.
• Defeated by the Pandyas and Cholas, who became dominant in Tamil region.
Important Rulers of Pallavas
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Simhavishnu | 575–600 CE | Expanded Pallava rule into Tamil country; began wars with Chalukyas |
| Mahendravarman I | 600–630 CE | Rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram; converted from Jainism to Shaivism |
| Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) | 630–668 CE | Defeated Pulakeshin II; captured Vatapi (642 CE); built Shore Temple, Pancha Rathas |
| Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) | 700–728 CE | Built Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram; structural temple architecture |
| Nandivarman II | 8th century CE | Restored Pallava power; resisted Chalukya invasions |
Fun Facts
Narasimhavarman I’s victory over Pulakeshin II is remembered as the ‘Battle of Vatapi’.
Mahabalipuram monuments (Pancha Rathas, Shore Temple) are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
The Pallavas pioneered structural temples in South India (Kailasanatha, Kanchi).
Bhakti saints (Alvars, Nayanars) flourished under Pallava patronage.
Mains Key Points
The Pallavas ruled South India from Kanchi and were rivals of the Chalukyas.
They pioneered South Indian Dravidian temple architecture.
Narasimhavarman I’s conquest of Vatapi marked Pallava-Chalukya rivalry.
Mahabalipuram monuments reflect artistic brilliance of Pallavas.
Their decline paved the way for Pandyas and Cholas in Tamil country.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital → Kanchi (Kanchipuram).
Simhavishnu → expanded Tamil rule.
Mahendravarman I → rock-cut temples, Shaivism.
Narasimhavarman I → defeated Pulakeshin II; built Mahabalipuram temples.
Narasimhavarman II → Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchi).
Bhakti saints flourished → Alvars (Vaishnavite), Nayanars (Shaivite).
Ikshvakus of Andhra
Key Point
The Ikshvakus (c. 225–325 CE) succeeded the Satavahanas in Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). They played a key role in supporting both Buddhism and Brahmanism and left behind significant inscriptions and monuments at Nagarjunakonda.
The Ikshvakus (c. 225–325 CE) succeeded the Satavahanas in Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda). They played a key role in supporting both Buddhism and Brahmanism and left behind significant inscriptions and monuments at Nagarjunakonda.
Detailed Notes (20 points)
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Origin and Rise
• Emerged after the decline of the Satavahanas in the Krishna–Guntur region of Andhra Pradesh.
• Capital: Vijayapuri (modern Nagarjunakonda).
• Sometimes called ‘Andhra Ikshvakus’ to distinguish them from the legendary Solar dynasty of Ayodhya.
Political History
• Founder: Vashishthiputra Chamtamula (c. 225 CE) — performed Vedic sacrifices (Ashvamedha, Agnihotra).
• Successors: Virapurushadatta, Ehuvula Chamtamula, Rudrapurushadatta.
• Kingdom was relatively small and short-lived.
Religion and Culture
• Rulers followed Brahmanism but queens and nobles supported Buddhism.
• Buddhist stupas, chaityas, and viharas at Nagarjunakonda flourished under their patronage.
• Inscriptions mention donations to Buddhist Sangha by royal women.
• They also performed Vedic sacrifices, showing synthesis of Brahmanism and Buddhism.
Economy
• Based on agriculture supported by Krishna river irrigation.
• Trade routes connecting Andhra to coastal ports boosted economy.
• Donations to Buddhist monasteries reflect surplus wealth.
Decline
• The dynasty lasted for about 100 years.
• Declined by the mid-4th century CE, absorbed into Pallava expansion.
Important Rulers of Ikshvakus of Andhra
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Vashishthiputra Chamtamula | c. 225 CE | Founder; performed Vedic sacrifices; established Vijayapuri |
| Virapurushadatta | 3rd century CE | Maintained stability; patronized both Brahmanism and Buddhism |
| Ehuvula Chamtamula | 3rd century CE | Extended religious patronage; more donations to Buddhist Sangha |
| Rudrapurushadatta | Early 4th century CE | Last known ruler; dynasty declined after his reign |
Fun Facts
The Ikshvakus of Andhra are distinct from the mythological Ikshvaku dynasty of Ayodhya.
Nagarjunakonda under Ikshvakus became a major Buddhist learning center.
Queens like Chamtisri and Kodabalishri were major donors to Buddhist establishments.
Ikshvaku inscriptions are a key source for Deccan history between Satavahanas and Pallavas.
Mains Key Points
The Ikshvakus succeeded the Satavahanas and ruled from Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda).
They synthesized Brahmanism and Buddhism, supporting both yajnas and monasteries.
Their inscriptions reveal the role of royal women in religious patronage.
They promoted agriculture and trade, making Nagarjunakonda a cultural hub.
Their decline led to Pallava dominance in Andhra by the 4th century CE.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital → Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda).
Founder → Vashishthiputra Chamtamula.
Patronage of both Brahmanism (yajnas) and Buddhism (monasteries).
Queens and royal women made donations to Buddhist Sangha.
Dynasty declined by mid-4th century CE → Pallava rise.
Kadambas of Banavasi
Key Point
The Kadambas (c. 345–540 CE) were the first indigenous dynasty of Karnataka. Their capital was Banavasi (in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka). Founded by Mayurasharma, they challenged Pallava dominance and promoted the use of Kannada in administration.
The Kadambas (c. 345–540 CE) were the first indigenous dynasty of Karnataka. Their capital was Banavasi (in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka). Founded by Mayurasharma, they challenged Pallava dominance and promoted the use of Kannada in administration.
Detailed Notes (27 points)
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Origin and Rise
• The Kadambas emerged in Karnataka after the decline of Pallava control in the Deccan.
• Capital: Banavasi (modern Uttara Kannada).
• Founder: Mayurasharma (c. 345 CE), originally a Brahmana who turned warrior after being insulted by Pallavas.
• The dynasty marked the assertion of local power against northern rulers.
Political History
• Mayurasharma (c. 345–365 CE): Founder; established independence from Pallavas; performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Kangavarma (365–390 CE): Faced Pallava invasions; defended kingdom.
• Bhagiratha (390–415 CE): Consolidated kingdom.
• Raghu (415–435 CE): Expanded territory.
• Kakusthavarma (435–455 CE): Most powerful Kadamba ruler; maintained marital alliances with Guptas and other dynasties; known for patronage of learning.
• Later rulers: Decline began after Kakusthavarma; weakened by Chalukyas.
• By mid-6th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami absorbed the Kadamba kingdom.
Administration
• Monarchy supported by feudatories and Brahmana elites.
• Kannada began to be used in inscriptions alongside Sanskrit — one of the first dynasties to adopt Kannada in administration.
• Land grants (agraharas) to Brahmanas were common.
• Local assemblies in villages managed day-to-day affairs.
Religion and Culture
• The Kadambas were patrons of Brahmanism (Shaivism and Vaishnavism).
• Mayurasharma and successors performed Vedic sacrifices like Ashvamedha and Agnihotra.
• They also supported Jainism and Buddhism in Karnataka.
• Promoted temple construction in early Dravidian style.
Decline
• After Kakusthavarma, the dynasty declined due to internal weakness.
• Conquered by Pulakeshin I of Chalukyas (c. 540 CE).
• Kadambas continued as feudatories under later Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.
Important Rulers of Kadamba Dynasty
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Mayurasharma | 345–365 CE | Founder; challenged Pallavas; performed Vedic sacrifices |
| Kangavarma | 365–390 CE | Defended kingdom against Pallavas |
| Bhagiratha | 390–415 CE | Consolidated kingdom |
| Raghu | 415–435 CE | Expanded territory |
| Kakusthavarma | 435–455 CE | Most powerful ruler; alliances with Guptas; patron of learning |
Fun Facts
The Kadambas were the first dynasty to use Kannada as an administrative language.
Mayurasharma’s story reflects the social rise of Brahmanas turning into warrior-kings.
Banavasi is mentioned in ancient texts as one of the oldest cities in Karnataka.
Kadambas continued as feudatories under later Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas.
Mains Key Points
The Kadambas were the first indigenous rulers of Karnataka with capital at Banavasi.
Founded by Mayurasharma, they resisted Pallava dominance and asserted regional independence.
They were pioneers in adopting Kannada as an administrative language.
Kakusthavarma expanded Kadamba prestige through alliances and patronage.
Their fall to the Chalukyas marked a shift in Deccan politics but they survived as feudatories.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital → Banavasi (Karnataka).
Founder → Mayurasharma (challenged Pallavas).
Most powerful ruler → Kakusthavarma (alliances with Guptas).
First to use Kannada in inscriptions and administration.
Decline → absorbed by Chalukyas of Badami (c. 540 CE).
Western Gangas (Gangas of Mysore / Talakad)
Key Point
The Western Gangas (c. 350–1000 CE) ruled southern Karnataka for about six centuries. Their capitals were initially Kolar and later Talakad (near Mysore). They were contemporaries of the Pallavas, Kadambas, and later the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. They are remembered for Jain patronage and the monolithic statue of Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola.
The Western Gangas (c. 350–1000 CE) ruled southern Karnataka for about six centuries. Their capitals were initially Kolar and later Talakad (near Mysore). They were contemporaries of the Pallavas, Kadambas, and later the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. They are remembered for Jain patronage and the monolithic statue of Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola.
Detailed Notes (28 points)
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Origin and Rise
• The Western Gangas emerged in southern Karnataka in the mid-4th century CE.
• Their initial capital was Kolar, later shifted to Talakad on the banks of river Kaveri.
• They are called ‘Western’ to distinguish them from the later ‘Eastern Gangas of Kalinga’.
Political History
• Konganivarma Madhava I (c. 350–370 CE): Founder; established capital at Kolar.
• Madhava II and Harivarma: Consolidated kingdom in southern Karnataka.
• Durvinita (c. 529–579 CE): Most famous early ruler; known for resisting Pallavas, patronage of literature, and diplomacy with Chalukyas.
• Shivamara I and Sripurusha (8th century CE): Fought against Chalukyas and Pallavas; later accepted Rashtrakuta suzerainty.
• Rachamalla I and II: Strengthened Jain institutions; inscriptions found at Shravanabelagola.
• Rachamalla IV (975–986 CE): Patron of Gomateshwara statue construction.
• After the 10th century CE, Western Gangas became feudatories of Cholas.
Administration
• Kingdom divided into Rashtras (provinces), Vishayas (districts), and Gramas (villages).
• Land grants recorded in inscriptions; agraharas given to Brahmanas and Jain basadis.
• Local assemblies managed irrigation, temples, and taxes.
Religion and Culture
• Western Gangas patronized both Jainism and Hinduism.
• Jainism flourished → Shravanabelagola became a great Jain center.
• Gomateshwara (Bahubali) monolithic statue at Shravanabelagola (c. 981 CE) commissioned by minister Chavundaraya under Rachamalla IV.
• They also supported Shaivism and Vaishnavism; many temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu were built.
Literature
• Durvinita patronized Sanskrit and Prakrit learning.
• Early Kannada inscriptions and literary works appeared during their rule.
• Chavundaraya wrote *Chavundaraya Purana* in Kannada (10th century).
Decline
• From the 10th century CE, Western Gangas came under Chola dominance.
• Their power ended by the 11th century, but their cultural contributions survived.
Important Rulers of Western Ganga Dynasty
| Ruler | Period | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Konganivarma Madhava I | c. 350–370 CE | Founder; capital at Kolar |
| Durvinita | 529–579 CE | Greatest ruler; resisted Pallavas; patron of Sanskrit & Kannada literature |
| Shivamara I | 8th century CE | Resisted Chalukyas; promoted Jainism |
| Sripurusha | 8th century CE | Fought Rashtrakutas; issued inscriptions |
| Rachamalla IV | 975–986 CE | Under whom minister Chavundaraya commissioned Gomateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola |
Fun Facts
The 57-foot Gomateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola is the tallest monolithic statue in the world.
Durvinita was praised by Bana (Harshacharita author) as a learned ruler.
Western Ganga inscriptions are among the earliest records in Kannada.
The dynasty survived for nearly 600 years, often as feudatories of larger empires.
Mains Key Points
Western Gangas ruled Karnataka for nearly 600 years from Kolar and Talakad.
Durvinita was their greatest ruler, known for resisting Pallavas and patronizing literature.
They were great patrons of Jainism; Shravanabelagola became a global Jain center.
The Gomateshwara statue (981 CE) remains one of the greatest monuments of Indian art.
They played a transitional role, later becoming feudatories of Rashtrakutas and Cholas.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Capital → Kolar → later Talakad.
Founder → Konganivarma Madhava I.
Durvinita → resisted Pallavas; patron of literature.
Rachamalla IV → Gomateshwara statue (981 CE) at Shravanabelagola by Chavundaraya.
Religion → Strong Jain patronage, also supported Shaivism & Vaishnavism.
Kalabhras Dynasty
Key Point
The Kalabhras (c. 3rd–6th century CE) ruled Tamilakam after displacing the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. Little is known from their own records, but Buddhist and Jain sources describe them as patrons of heterodox faiths. Their period is called the ‘Kalabhra Interregnum’ in South Indian history.
The Kalabhras (c. 3rd–6th century CE) ruled Tamilakam after displacing the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. Little is known from their own records, but Buddhist and Jain sources describe them as patrons of heterodox faiths. Their period is called the ‘Kalabhra Interregnum’ in South Indian history.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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Origin and Rise
• Kalabhras’ origin is uncertain; some believe they were hill tribes of Tamil Nadu.
• Emerged after the decline of Sangam age kingdoms (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas).
• Established control over large parts of Tamilakam in the 3rd century CE.
Political History
• Displaced ancient Tamil dynasties (Chola, Chera, Pandya).
• Their rulers are little known, but names like Achutavikranta and Kalabhradhiraja appear in later sources.
• They ruled for about three centuries.
• Overthrown in the 6th century CE by revival of Pallavas (in north Tamil Nadu) and Pandyas (in south Tamil Nadu).
Religion and Culture
• Patronized Buddhism and Jainism, leading to decline of Vedic Brahmanism in Tamilakam during their rule.
• Sangam literature declined; instead Buddhist and Jain works in Tamil flourished (e.g., *Manimekalai* and *Silappatikaram* gained popularity in this era).
• They did not promote temple-building; hence fewer archaeological remains exist.
Economy and Society
• Agricultural expansion continued, especially in river valleys.
• Land grants were made to Buddhist monasteries and Jain institutions.
• Brahmanical institutions weakened during this period, leading to resentment recorded in later Hindu texts.
Decline
• By the 6th century CE, Kalabhras were overthrown.
• Pandyas re-established power in the south, while Pallavas dominated north Tamil region.
• Their memory survives mostly in hostile records of later Brahmanical and Hindu dynasties.
Key Features of Kalabhras
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Capital | Not clearly known; likely in Tamil Nadu region |
| Religion | Patrons of Buddhism and Jainism |
| Literature | Growth of Tamil Buddhist and Jain works (e.g., Manimekalai, Silappatikaram’s spread) |
| Impact | Displacement of Sangam dynasties; weakening of Brahmanism |
| Decline | Overthrown by Pallavas and Pandyas in 6th century CE |
Fun Facts
The Kalabhra period (3rd–6th century CE) is sometimes called the ‘dark age’ of Tamil history because of scarce sources.
Much of what we know about Kalabhras comes from hostile Pallava and Pandya inscriptions.
Despite being called a ‘dark age’, Buddhist and Jain literature in Tamil flourished in this period.
The Tamil epic *Manimekalai* reflects Kalabhra-era Buddhist influence.
Mains Key Points
Kalabhras disrupted the traditional Tamil dynasties and ruled Tamilakam for about 3 centuries.
They patronized Buddhism and Jainism, weakening Brahmanical dominance.
Their period is considered a ‘dark age’ due to lack of inscriptions and monuments.
However, Buddhist and Jain Tamil literature flourished, leaving lasting impact on Tamil culture.
Their fall allowed Pallavas and Pandyas to re-establish power in Tamil region.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Period → c. 3rd–6th century CE.
Overthrew → Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas.
Patronized → Buddhism and Jainism.
Important works → Manimekalai, Silappatikaram (popular in this period).
Decline → Defeated by Pallavas and Pandyas.
Temples in the Post-Gupta Period (600–1200 CE)
Key Point
The Post-Gupta period (7th–12th century CE) witnessed the flowering of temple architecture across India. The Nagara (north), Dravida (south), and Vesara (Deccan) styles matured, with dynasties like Pallavas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chandellas building monumental temples.
The Post-Gupta period (7th–12th century CE) witnessed the flowering of temple architecture across India. The Nagara (north), Dravida (south), and Vesara (Deccan) styles matured, with dynasties like Pallavas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chandellas building monumental temples.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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Characteristics of Post-Gupta Temples
• Temples became larger, more ornate, and architecturally complex.
• Shikharas (towers) grew taller and more elaborate.
• Sculptures became integral, depicting deities, mythological stories, daily life, and erotic themes.
• Mandapas (pillared halls) and pradakshina paths were introduced.
• Temple complexes included subsidiary shrines (panchayatana style).
Regional Styles
• Nagara (North India): Curvilinear shikhara, square sanctum, clustered spires.
- Examples: Sun Temple (Konark, Odisha), Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar), Kandariya Mahadev (Khajuraho).
• Dravida (South India): Pyramid-shaped vimana, gopurams, enclosed prakara.
- Examples: Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram), Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur).
• Vesara (Deccan): Hybrid of Nagara and Dravida, circular/square plans.
- Examples: Pattadakal temples, Kailasa Temple (Ellora).
Dynastic Contributions
• Pallavas (7th–9th CE): From rock-cut to structural temples. Example → Shore Temple, Pancha Rathas (Mahabalipuram).
• Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th CE): Rock-cut caves at Badami, structural temples at Aihole & Pattadakal (Vesara style).
• Rashtrakutas (8th–10th CE): Monolithic Kailasa Temple at Ellora.
• Palas & Senas (8th–12th CE): Buddhist Mahaviharas at Nalanda, Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh).
• Chandellas (10th–12th CE): Khajuraho group of temples (famous for erotic sculptures).
• Cholas (9th–12th CE): Built massive Dravida temples — Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur), Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Airavateshwara (Darasuram).
• Pandyas: Expanded Madurai’s Meenakshi temple with gopurams.
Post-Gupta Temples and Dynasties
| Dynasty | Temple/Monument | Style |
|---|---|---|
| Pallavas | Shore Temple, Pancha Rathas (Mahabalipuram) | Early Dravida |
| Chalukyas of Badami | Aihole & Pattadakal Temples | Vesara |
| Rashtrakutas | Kailasa Temple (Ellora) | Monolithic Vesara |
| Cholas | Brihadeshwara, Gangaikonda Cholapuram | Dravida |
| Chandellas | Khajuraho group | Nagara |
| Palas | Somapura Mahavihara | Buddhist architecture |
Fun Facts
The Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Rashtrakutas) was carved top-down from a single rock.
The Brihadeshwara Temple (Cholas) has the tallest vimana of its time (66m).
Khajuraho temples are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, famous for their erotic sculptures.
The Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh) influenced Buddhist architecture in SE Asia.
Mains Key Points
Post-Gupta period saw full development of temple architecture with Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara styles.
Dynasties like Pallavas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas, and Chandellas patronized massive temples.
Temples became centers of religion, art, education, and economy.
Fusion styles (Vesara) illustrate cultural interaction between north and south.
This period left India with some of its greatest temple monuments.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Pallavas → Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram.
Chalukyas → Aihole & Pattadakal (Vesara).
Rashtrakutas → Kailasa Temple (Ellora).
Cholas → Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur).
Chandellas → Khajuraho (Nagara).
Palas → Somapura Mahavihara (Buddhist).
Features of the Post-Gupta Period (600–1200 CE)
Key Point
The Post-Gupta period witnessed the decline of centralized empires and the rise of regional kingdoms. It was marked by feudalism, temple-building, religious transformations, and increasing decentralization. Despite political instability, this period produced enduring cultural, religious, and architectural contributions.
The Post-Gupta period witnessed the decline of centralized empires and the rise of regional kingdoms. It was marked by feudalism, temple-building, religious transformations, and increasing decentralization. Despite political instability, this period produced enduring cultural, religious, and architectural contributions.
Detailed Notes (34 points)
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Political Features
• Decline of Gupta Empire → no strong all-India empire; rise of regional kingdoms.
• Dynasties: Harshavardhana (Pushyabhuti), Palas (Bengal-Bihar), Pratiharas (north-west), Rashtrakutas (Deccan), Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas (south).
• Persian & Greek contacts declined; Arab invasions in Sindh (711 CE).
• Frequent conflicts among Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas (‘Tripartite struggle’ for Kannauj).
Administrative Features
• Central authority weakened → feudal structure developed.
• Land grants to Brahmanas, temples, monasteries (agraharas) created local power centers.
• Hereditary offices, decentralization, and regional autonomy became common.
Economic Features
• Decline of long-distance trade compared to Gupta period.
• Agriculture became the economic backbone; irrigation expansion in Deccan & South India.
• Feudal agrarian economy → revenue mostly from land grants.
• Limited coinage circulation; barter increased in some areas.
Society
• Varna system became more rigid; rise of sub-castes (jatis).
• Land grants strengthened Brahmanical dominance.
• Position of women declined further; child marriage and sati spread.
• Joint family and patriarchal norms strengthened.
Religion
• Rise of temple-based Hinduism (Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism).
• Bhakti movement in South India (Alvars & Nayanars).
• Buddhism and Jainism declined in most regions except eastern India and Karnataka.
• Tantrism spread; rituals and esotericism gained importance.
Art and Architecture
• Prolific temple building in Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara styles.
• Sculpture became ornate (Khajuraho, Konark, Ellora).
• Palas promoted Buddhist viharas (Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura).
• Cholas built grand Dravidian temples (Brihadeshwara, Gangaikonda Cholapuram).
Literature and Science
• Sanskrit continued but regional languages (Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali) gained prominence.
• Jain & Buddhist literature in Kannada and Tamil flourished.
• Medical, astronomical, and mathematical texts (Aryabhata II, Bhaskara I & II).
• Nalanda and Vikramashila remained important centers of learning.
Key Features of the Post-Gupta Period
| Aspect | Features |
|---|---|
| Politics | Regional kingdoms, Tripartite struggle, decline of central authority |
| Administration | Feudalism, land grants, hereditary offices |
| Economy | Agriculture dominant, trade decline, feudal agrarian system |
| Society | Rigid varna, rise of jatis, decline of women’s status |
| Religion | Temple-based Hinduism, Bhakti, decline of Buddhism & Jainism |
| Art & Architecture | Temples in Nagara, Dravida, Vesara styles; Khajuraho, Ellora, Brihadeshwara |
| Literature & Science | Rise of regional languages, Sanskrit continuity, Bhaskara II, Nalanda |
Fun Facts
The Tripartite Struggle (Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas) lasted over 200 years for control of Kannauj.
Khajuraho temples (Chandellas) are famous for their erotic sculptures symbolizing fertility and spirituality.
Brihadeshwara temple (Cholas) was the tallest temple in the world when built (11th century).
Nalanda University attracted students from Tibet, China, and Southeast Asia until its destruction in 12th century.
Mains Key Points
The Post-Gupta period marked political fragmentation and feudalism but also cultural florescence.
Regional kingdoms (Palas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas) shaped distinct cultural zones.
Hindu temple culture and Bhakti movement flourished; Buddhism and Jainism declined.
Feudal agrarian economy replaced Gupta-era trade-based prosperity.
The period laid foundations of medieval Indian society and polity.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Tripartite struggle → Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas.
Temple styles → Nagara (north), Dravida (south), Vesara (Deccan).
Bhakti movement → Alvars (Vaishnavite), Nayanars (Shaivite).
Palas → Buddhist viharas (Nalanda, Somapura).
Cholas → Brihadeshwara, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Key Features of South India (c. A.D. 300–750)
Key Point
Between 300–750 CE, South India witnessed the rise of regional kingdoms like Pallavas (Tamil Nadu), Kadambas (Karnataka), Chalukyas of Badami (Deccan), and early Pandyas. This period saw the beginning of Dravidian temple architecture, Bhakti saints (Alvars and Nayanars), and the spread of Brahmanism alongside Jainism and Buddhism.
Between 300–750 CE, South India witnessed the rise of regional kingdoms like Pallavas (Tamil Nadu), Kadambas (Karnataka), Chalukyas of Badami (Deccan), and early Pandyas. This period saw the beginning of Dravidian temple architecture, Bhakti saints (Alvars and Nayanars), and the spread of Brahmanism alongside Jainism and Buddhism.
Detailed Notes (32 points)
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Political Features
• Emergence of regional kingdoms after decline of Satavahanas (c. 3rd CE).
• Pallavas (Kanchipuram) → rivals of Chalukyas; temple-builders (Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram).
• Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th CE) → Vesara architecture at Aihole, Pattadakal, Badami caves.
• Kadambas of Banavasi (c. 345–540 CE) → first indigenous dynasty of Karnataka; introduced Kannada in administration.
• Pandyas (Madurai) → maritime trade, early temple foundations.
• Kalabhras (3rd–6th CE) → displaced Sangam dynasties, patronized Buddhism and Jainism (Kalabhra interregnum).
Economy
• Agriculture expanded with irrigation (tanks, canals).
• Inland and overseas trade flourished (ports: Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai).
• Roman trade declined but Southeast Asian contacts (Suvarnabhumi, Srivijaya) grew.
• Land grants (agraharas) to Brahmanas and temples → feudal tendencies.
Society
• Varna system consolidated, but regional jatis gained prominence.
• Brahmanas gained power through land grants.
• Position of women varied: Sangam traditions declined, child marriage and patriarchy increased.
• Jain and Buddhist monks had influence; but Bhakti saints (Nayanars, Alvars) challenged ritualism.
Religion & Culture
• Shaivism and Vaishnavism gained dominance; temple-centered worship spread.
• Bhakti movement started in Tamil Nadu with Nayanars (Shaivite) and Alvars (Vaishnavite).
• Jainism continued in Karnataka under Western Gangas; Buddhism flourished under Pallavas (Mahabalipuram, Kanchi monasteries).
• Tantrism also gained ground.
Art and Architecture
• Transition from rock-cut caves to structural temples.
• Pallavas → Shore Temple, Pancha Rathas (Mahabalipuram), Kailasanatha (Kanchi).
• Chalukyas → Cave temples at Badami, structural temples at Pattadakal (UNESCO site).
• Early Dravidian features (vimana, mandapa, gopuram) developed.
Literature
• Sanskrit continued as elite language.
• Tamil Bhakti poetry (Tevaram, Divya Prabandham) by Nayanars and Alvars.
• Early Kannada inscriptions under Kadambas; Jain texts in Kannada emerged.
• Pallavas patronized Sanskrit scholars (Dandin, Bharavi).
Key Dynasties of South India (c. 300–750 CE)
| Dynasty | Region | Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Pallavas | Tamil Nadu (Kanchi) | Rock-cut & structural temples; Bhakti support; literature |
| Chalukyas of Badami | Deccan (Karnataka) | Vesara architecture at Aihole, Pattadakal; Badami caves |
| Kadambas | Karnataka (Banavasi) | First indigenous Kannada dynasty; land grants |
| Pandyas | Madurai (Tamil Nadu) | Trade, pearls, temple foundations |
| Kalabhras | Tamil region | Patronized Buddhism & Jainism; displaced Sangam dynasties |
Fun Facts
The Pallavas pioneered structural Dravidian temples at Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram.
Chalukyas’ Pattadakal temples show a fusion (Vesara) of Nagara and Dravida styles.
The Kalabhras are remembered negatively as they disrupted Sangam dynasties — their period is called the ‘Kalabhra Interregnum’.
Bhakti saints’ poetry in Tamil became the foundation of later devotional movements across India.
Mains Key Points
South India (300–750 CE) saw rise of regional powers like Pallavas, Chalukyas, Kadambas, and Pandyas.
Kalabhra interregnum disrupted Sangam dynasties but promoted Buddhism & Jainism.
This period marked the start of Dravidian temple architecture (Mahabalipuram, Pattadakal).
Bhakti saints (Alvars, Nayanars) initiated devotional movements against ritualism.
Agriculture, trade, and land grants shaped economy and feudal trends.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Pallavas → Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram temples.
Chalukyas → Vesara architecture at Aihole & Pattadakal.
Kadambas → Kannada inscriptions, Banavasi capital.
Bhakti movement → Alvars (Vaishnava), Nayanars (Shaiva).
Kalabhras → Patronized Buddhism/Jainism; displaced Sangam dynasties.
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