Ancient History Playlist
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Stone age
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Chalcolithic age(Copper Age)
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Indus Valley Civilization
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Vedic age
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The Mahajanapadas
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Buddhism and Jainism
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Mauryan Empire
11 topics
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Post-Mauryan Period
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Gupta Period
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Post-Gupta Period
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Chapter 7: Mauryan Empire
Chapter Test11 topics•Estimated reading: 33 minutes
Mauryan Empire (321–184 BCE): Introduction & Sources
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire was the first pan-Indian empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the guidance of Chanakya. It marked a turning point in Indian polity, economy, and administration, reaching its zenith under Ashoka.
The Mauryan Empire was the first pan-Indian empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the guidance of Chanakya. It marked a turning point in Indian polity, economy, and administration, reaching its zenith under Ashoka.
Detailed Notes (20 points)
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Introduction
• Timeframe: 321 BCE – 184 BCE.
• Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya).
• Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna, Bihar).
• Expanded from Magadha (eastern India) to almost the entire subcontinent.
• Reached its greatest territorial extent under Ashoka after the Kalinga War.
• Known for centralized administration, strong bureaucracy, economic prosperity, and spread of Buddhism.
• Declined after Ashoka, finally ending with Brihadratha (184 BCE).
Sources of Mauryan History
# Archaeological Sources:
• **Ashokan Edicts:** Rock edicts, pillar edicts, cave inscriptions — spread across India; written in Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic, Kharoshthi, Brahmi scripts.
• **Monuments:** Ashokan pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital = National Emblem of India), Stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut), caves (Barabar hills).
# Literary Sources:
• **Arthashastra (by Kautilya):** Treatise on statecraft, economics, espionage, and administration.
• **Mudrarakshasa (by Vishakhadatta):** Sanskrit drama about Chandragupta’s rise and fall of Nandas.
• **Jain Texts:** Parishishtaparvan (Hemachandra), mentions Chandragupta becoming a Jain monk.
• **Buddhist Texts:** Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa (Sri Lankan chronicles), Divyavadana, Asokavadana — provide details on Ashoka’s rule and spread of Buddhism.
# Foreign Accounts:
• **Megasthenes (Greek ambassador):** Sent by Seleucus Nikator to Chandragupta’s court; wrote ‘Indica’ describing society, administration, economy.
• **Other Classical Accounts:** Pliny, Arrian, Strabo mention Mauryan India.
Sources of Mauryan History
| Type | Examples | Importance |
|---|---|---|
| Archaeological | Ashokan edicts, pillars, stupas, caves | Direct evidence of administration, religion, language |
| Literary (Indian) | Arthashastra, Mudrarakshasa, Jain & Buddhist texts | Insights on polity, society, Ashoka’s policies |
| Foreign Accounts | Megasthenes’ Indica, Strabo, Pliny | Eyewitness and outsider perspective on Mauryan society |
Fun Facts
The Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka is India’s national emblem.
Megasthenes described Chandragupta’s court and society in detail in ‘Indica’.
Barabar caves (Bihar) given by Ashoka are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.
Chandragupta Maurya abdicated throne and became a Jain monk at Shravanabelagola.
Mains Key Points
The Mauryan Empire was the first large-scale empire unifying most of the Indian subcontinent.
Sources of Mauryan history are diverse: inscriptions, literature, and foreign accounts.
Arthashastra shows the sophistication of Mauryan administration and economy.
Ashokan edicts provide direct insights into his Dhamma policy and governance.
Megasthenes’ Indica offers a rare outsider perspective on early Indian society.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Foundation → Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE), guided by Chanakya.
Capital → Pataliputra.
Sources → Arthashastra (Kautilya), Indica (Megasthenes), Ashokan edicts.
Sarnath Lion Capital = National Emblem.
Barabar caves = oldest rock-cut caves in India.
Mauryan Empire: Political History & Expanse
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire (321–184 BCE) was the first large-scale empire of India. From Chandragupta’s foundation with Chanakya’s guidance to Ashoka’s imperial zenith and later decline, it marked a turning point in Indian polity.
The Mauryan Empire (321–184 BCE) was the first large-scale empire of India. From Chandragupta’s foundation with Chanakya’s guidance to Ashoka’s imperial zenith and later decline, it marked a turning point in Indian polity.
Detailed Notes (31 points)
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Political History
# Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)
• Founded Mauryan Empire after overthrowing the Nanda dynasty with Chanakya’s help.
• Defeated Seleucus Nikator (305 BCE); gained territories of modern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and NW India.
• Treaty with Seleucus: marriage alliance + 500 war elephants given to Seleucus.
• Capital: Pataliputra. Established centralized administration.
• Towards end of life, abdicated throne, became Jain monk, and died at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
# Bindusara (297–273 BCE)
• Son of Chandragupta Maurya; continued expansion to southern India.
• Greek sources: called 'Amitrochates' (slayer of enemies).
• Controlled almost entire subcontinent except extreme South (Kalinga, Tamil regions).
• Maintained relations with Hellenistic kingdoms.
# Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE)
• Initially expanded empire aggressively; famous for **Kalinga War (261 BCE)** where 1,00,000+ killed.
• Shocked by bloodshed → embraced Buddhism, adopted Dhamma policy (Ahimsa, tolerance, welfare).
• Built roads, hospitals, stupas, rock & pillar edicts across empire.
• Sent Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka (Mahendra & Sanghamitra), Central Asia, SE Asia.
• Ashokan pillars (Sarnath Lion Capital) are enduring symbols.
• Considered the greatest ruler of the Mauryan dynasty.
# Later Mauryas (232–184 BCE)
• After Ashoka, weak successors (Dasharatha, Samprati, etc.) ruled smaller regions.
• Empire fragmented due to invasions (Greeks, Shungas) and internal decline.
• Last ruler Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga in 184 BCE, ending Mauryan dynasty.
Expanse of the Mauryan Empire
• At its height (Ashoka’s reign), Mauryan Empire covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent.
• North-West Frontier: Afghanistan, Baluchistan (after Seleucus treaty).
• East: Bengal and Odisha (after conquest of Kalinga).
• West: Extended to modern Gujarat, parts of Iran.
• South: Deccan plateau up to Karnataka; Tamil regions (Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras) remained outside direct control but acknowledged Mauryan influence.
• Center: Magadha (Bihar) remained the core, with Pataliputra as capital.
• It was the largest empire in ancient Indian history until the Mughals.
Political History of Mauryas
| Ruler | Reign | Key Achievements |
|---|---|---|
| Chandragupta Maurya | 321–297 BCE | Founded empire, defeated Seleucus, centralized administration |
| Bindusara | 297–273 BCE | Expanded south, maintained foreign relations |
| Ashoka | 273–232 BCE | Kalinga War, adopted Buddhism, spread Dhamma, built stupas & edicts |
| Later Mauryas | 232–184 BCE | Weak rulers, decline, Brihadratha killed by Pushyamitra Shunga |
Expanse of Mauryan Empire
| Direction | Regions Covered |
|---|---|
| North-West | Afghanistan, Baluchistan, NW India |
| East | Bengal, Odisha (Kalinga) |
| West | Gujarat, parts of Iran |
| South | Deccan Plateau till Karnataka; Tamil states semi-independent |
| Center | Magadha (Bihar), capital Pataliputra |
Fun Facts
Seleucus Nikator exchanged territories with Chandragupta and received 500 war elephants, which later helped in his battles in West Asia.
Ashoka’s inscriptions are the earliest deciphered written records of India (deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837).
Ashoka sent his own children, Mahendra and Sanghamitra, to Sri Lanka as Buddhist missionaries.
The Mauryan Empire was larger than Alexander’s empire in India.
Mains Key Points
Chandragupta laid the foundation of a centralized state with Chanakya’s guidance.
Bindusara consolidated and expanded to the Deccan.
Ashoka transformed from conqueror to propagator of Buddhism after Kalinga.
The Mauryan Empire’s vast expanse shows the first attempt at pan-Indian political unity.
Its decline reveals the challenge of sustaining such a vast centralized empire.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus (305 BCE).
Bindusara = Amitrochates in Greek sources.
Kalinga War (261 BCE) → turning point for Ashoka.
Ashokan edicts = earliest inscriptions of India.
Last Mauryan ruler → Brihadratha (killed by Pushyamitra Shunga).
Mauryan Empire: Edicts of Ashoka & Dhamma Policy
Key Point
Ashoka’s edicts are the earliest deciphered inscriptions in Indian history. They reveal his adoption of Dhamma (a moral code) after the Kalinga war, which emphasized non-violence, tolerance, and welfare of subjects.
Ashoka’s edicts are the earliest deciphered inscriptions in Indian history. They reveal his adoption of Dhamma (a moral code) after the Kalinga war, which emphasized non-violence, tolerance, and welfare of subjects.
Detailed Notes (26 points)
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Edicts of Ashoka
• Ashoka issued inscriptions across his empire on rocks, pillars, and caves.
• Written in **Prakrit (Brahmi script)**, but also in Greek, Aramaic, and Kharoshthi in NW regions.
• Divided into: **14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Minor Pillar Edicts.**
• Found across India: Girnar (Gujarat), Dhauli & Jaugada (Odisha), Sarnath & Sanchi (MP), Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Kandahar (Afghanistan).
• National Emblem of India (Sarnath Lion Capital) comes from Ashoka’s pillar.
Ashoka’s Dhamma
# Steps Taken to Propagate Dhamma:
• Appointment of **Dhamma Mahamatras** (special officers to spread Dhamma).
• Engraving edicts on rocks and pillars across empire.
• Sending **missions** to Sri Lanka (Mahendra & Sanghamitra), SE Asia, and Hellenistic kingdoms.
• Personal tours (Dhamma yatras) to preach compassion instead of royal hunts.
• Construction of stupas, viharas, roads, rest houses, hospitals for people and animals.
# Contents of Dhamma:
• Non-violence (Ahimsa) and compassion to all beings.
• Respect for elders, obedience to parents, care for children and servants.
• Religious tolerance between sects (Buddhists, Jains, Brahmanas, Ajivikas).
• Moral behavior: truthfulness, charity, purity.
• Welfare measures: planting trees, digging wells, medical care for humans & animals.
• Avoidance of meaningless rituals and emphasis on ethical living.
# Interpretations of Dhamma:
• Not a new religion, but a **code of conduct** for moral life and harmony.
• Reflected Buddhist influence, but was broader and more universal.
• Historians differ: some see it as a unifying ethical policy, others as a tool for political integration.
• It was pragmatic: aimed to reduce conflicts in a vast multi-religious empire.
• Ashoka’s Dhamma became a unique experiment in ancient world history.
Classification of Ashoka’s Edicts
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Major Rock Edicts | 14 edicts; policies, welfare, tolerance | Girnar, Dhauli, Jaugada, Kalsi |
| Pillar Edicts | 7 pillars; Dhamma principles, Ashoka’s moral vision | Sarnath, Sanchi, Allahabad, Lauriya Nandangarh |
| Minor Rock Edicts | Personal beliefs, Buddhist influence | Maski, Brahmagiri, Gujarra |
| Minor Pillar Edicts | Buddhist missions, Dhamma Mahamatras | Sanchi, Sarnath |
Core Teachings of Ashoka’s Dhamma
| Principle | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Ahimsa | Non-violence towards humans and animals |
| Tolerance | Respect for all religions and sects |
| Family Ethics | Obedience to parents, care for children and servants |
| Charity | Dana (donation) and helping the needy |
| Public Welfare | Roads, wells, medical care for people & animals |
| Moral Purity | Truthfulness, avoidance of meaningless rituals |
Fun Facts
Ashoka’s inscriptions are the first official written records in Indian history.
The word ‘Ashoka’ does not appear in his edicts; he calls himself ‘Devanampiya Piyadassi’ (Beloved of the Gods, of Gracious Looks).
The Maski edict was the first to mention his name ‘Ashoka’.
His Dhamma was not Buddhism alone, but a universal code of conduct.
Mains Key Points
Ashoka’s edicts are a unique source to understand ancient Indian polity, religion, and ethics.
His Dhamma was not sectarian Buddhism but a moral policy for social harmony.
Ashoka balanced conquest with compassion after the Kalinga war.
His efforts show the use of communication and moral persuasion as instruments of governance.
Historians interpret Dhamma as both a religious policy and a political tool for empire integration.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Edicts → written in Prakrit (Brahmi), also Greek, Aramaic, Kharoshthi.
Sarnath Lion Capital = National Emblem.
Devanampiya Piyadassi = Ashoka.
Kalinga War (261 BCE) → turning point in Ashoka’s life.
Maski edict → first inscription mentioning Ashoka by name.
Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka
Key Point
The 14 Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka, engraved across his empire, provide direct insights into his policies on Dhamma, governance, tolerance, and Kalinga war.
The 14 Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka, engraved across his empire, provide direct insights into his policies on Dhamma, governance, tolerance, and Kalinga war.
Major Rock Edicts (Number-wise)
| Edict No. | Content/Message |
|---|---|
| Edict I | Prohibits animal sacrifice and festive slaughter. |
| Edict II | Medical care for humans and animals; wells and trees along roads. |
| Edict III | Urges obedience to parents, respect for elders, and proper behavior towards Brahmanas and Shramanas. |
| Edict IV | Decline of rituals and growth of Dhamma. |
| Edict V | Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras for welfare of people and spreading Dhamma. |
| Edict VI | Ashoka’s concern for welfare of all; transparency in administration; reports to be sent to him anytime. |
| Edict VII | Promotes religious tolerance among different sects. |
| Edict VIII | Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma Yatras (tours of compassion). |
| Edict IX | Condemns meaningless rituals; emphasizes Dhamma (moral life). |
| Edict X | Denounces fame and glory; true glory lies in Dhamma. |
| Edict XI | Dhamma is the best gift; promotes morality as the highest duty. |
| Edict XII | Religious tolerance and harmony; respect for all sects. |
| Edict XIII | Detailed description of the Kalinga War (261 BCE), remorse for bloodshed, decision to adopt Dhamma and non-violence; mentions missions sent to Greek kings. |
| Edict XIV | States that inscriptions are made in different places, in different forms, but essence is the same. |
Fun Facts
Major Rock Edict XIII is the most famous: it records the Kalinga war and Ashoka’s remorse.
Edict XII is considered the earliest official statement of religious tolerance in world history.
Ashoka’s edicts are scattered across India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Afghanistan — showing vast empire.
James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837, unlocking Ashokan edicts.
Mains Key Points
The Major Rock Edicts provide a chronological record of Ashoka’s transformation from a conqueror to a moral ruler.
They reflect his concern for welfare, morality, and religious tolerance.
Edict XIII is crucial for understanding Ashoka’s remorse after Kalinga and the turning point in his policy.
Edicts show the use of inscriptions as a medium of mass communication in ancient India.
They provide the earliest insight into state policy based on ethics rather than religion alone.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Edict XIII → Kalinga war & remorse.
Edict V → Dhamma Mahamatras.
Edict VII & XII → Religious tolerance.
Edict VIII → Dhamma yatras.
Edict X → Rejects glory, emphasizes Dhamma.
Pillar Edicts of Ashoka
Key Point
Ashoka’s seven Pillar Edicts, inscribed mainly on sandstone pillars, elaborate on his Dhamma, personal beliefs, moral conduct, and administrative instructions.
Ashoka’s seven Pillar Edicts, inscribed mainly on sandstone pillars, elaborate on his Dhamma, personal beliefs, moral conduct, and administrative instructions.
Summary of Pillar Edicts
| Edict No. | Content/Message |
|---|---|
| Pillar Edict I | Prohibition of animal sacrifice; festivals should avoid cruelty. |
| Pillar Edict II | Promotion of medical treatment for humans and animals; planting of trees and wells. |
| Pillar Edict III | Urges officials to be impartial, fair, and just; focus on morality over rituals. |
| Pillar Edict IV | Dhamma more important than rituals; glory lies in moral behavior, not ceremonies. |
| Pillar Edict V | Mentions appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras to spread morality and ensure welfare. |
| Pillar Edict VI | Ashoka’s personal commitment to Dhamma; confesses past mistakes and emphasizes truth, compassion, and tolerance. |
| Pillar Edict VII | Comprehensive summary of Dhamma principles: non-violence, respect, tolerance, welfare, truthfulness — considered the most important edict. |
Fun Facts
The Pillar Edicts are carved on polished sandstone pillars, some over 40 feet tall.
The Sarnath Lion Capital (National Emblem of India) comes from one such pillar.
Pillar Edict VII is the longest and most comprehensive, summarizing Ashoka’s entire Dhamma policy.
Unlike Major Rock Edicts, which were more public, Pillar Edicts reflect Ashoka’s personal and ethical concerns.
Mains Key Points
Pillar Edicts complement Rock Edicts in explaining Ashoka’s Dhamma policy.
They reflect his personal transformation after the Kalinga war.
They emphasize morality, welfare, tolerance, and ethical governance.
Pillar Edict VII is the most comprehensive and regarded as Ashoka’s moral testament.
The polished sandstone pillars are masterpieces of Mauryan art and engineering.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Pillar Edict V → Dhamma Mahamatras.
Pillar Edict VI → Ashoka’s personal confession and truthfulness.
Pillar Edict VII → Summary of Dhamma (most important).
Sarnath Lion Capital → National Emblem.
Pillar Edicts carved on sandstone pillars (up to 40 feet tall).
Mauryan Administration: Central Administration
Key Point
The Mauryan administration was the first well-structured and centralized bureaucracy in Indian history. It was influenced by Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica, and Ashokan edicts.
The Mauryan administration was the first well-structured and centralized bureaucracy in Indian history. It was influenced by Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica, and Ashokan edicts.
Detailed Notes (37 points)
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Central Administration
• The king (Rajan) was the supreme authority — legislative, executive, judicial, and military powers rested with him.
• Assisted by council of ministers (Mantri Parishad) — advisory but king was final authority.
• Empire divided into provinces, districts, villages — well-organized hierarchy.
Important Officials in Central Administration
• **Mahamantri (Chief Minister)** — headed council of ministers.
• **Senapati (Commander-in-Chief)** — head of armed forces.
• **Purohita (High Priest)** — performed rituals, advised king on dharma.
• **Amatya (Minister)** — general administrators (revenue, records, policy).
• **Yuvaraja (Crown Prince)** — often placed as provincial governor.
• **Mahamatras** — special officers, especially during Ashoka, for justice, welfare, Dhamma.
Saptanga Theory of State (Seven Limbs of State as per Arthashastra)
1. **Swami (King):** Head of state.
2. **Amatya (Ministers):** Bureaucracy and advisors.
3. **Janapada (Territory & People):** Land and subjects.
4. **Durga (Fort):** Strong capital and fortifications.
5. **Kosha (Treasury):** Revenue, wealth, and resources.
6. **Danda (Army):** Military power to enforce rule.
7. **Mitra (Ally):** Foreign policy and friendly states.
Adhyakshas (Superintendents) as per Arthashastra
• **Sita Adhyaksha:** Superintendent of agriculture.
• **Panya Adhyaksha:** Superintendent of commerce and trade.
• **Sulka Adhyaksha:** In charge of customs and tolls.
• **Navadhyaksha:** Superintendent of shipping and ports.
• **Akaradhyaksha:** Superintendent of mines.
• **Pautavadhyaksha:** Superintendent of weights and measures.
• **Suradhyaksha:** Superintendent of liquor.
• **Lavanadhyaksha:** Superintendent of salt.
• **Kosha Adhyaksha:** Superintendent of treasury.
• **Samastha Adhyaksha:** Superintendent of markets.
Officers Mentioned in Ashokan Edicts
• **Dhamma Mahamatras:** Appointed by Ashoka to spread Dhamma, welfare, and justice.
• **Pradeshikas:** Governors of provinces; reported to king every 5 years.
• **Rajukas:** Rural officers; responsible for justice and revenue at district level.
• **Yuktas:** Record-keepers, revenue collectors, and subordinate officers.
• **Amatyas:** General administrators mentioned in edicts as well.
• These officers ensured efficient communication between center and provinces.
Saptanga Theory of State
| Limb | Function |
|---|---|
| Swami (King) | Head of the state |
| Amatya (Ministers) | Bureaucracy and advisors |
| Janapada | Territory and population |
| Durga | Fortifications and defense |
| Kosha | Treasury and resources |
| Danda | Army and coercive authority |
| Mitra | Allies and foreign policy |
Key Adhyakshas (Superintendents)
| Adhyaksha | Department |
|---|---|
| Sita Adhyaksha | Agriculture |
| Panya Adhyaksha | Commerce & Trade |
| Sulka Adhyaksha | Customs & Toll |
| Nava Adhyaksha | Shipping & Ports |
| Akara Adhyaksha | Mines |
| Pautava Adhyaksha | Weights & Measures |
| Sura Adhyaksha | Liquor |
| Lavana Adhyaksha | Salt |
| Kosha Adhyaksha | Treasury |
| Samastha Adhyaksha | Markets |
Fun Facts
Megasthenes compared the Mauryan capital Pataliputra to cities like Susa and Persepolis due to its grandeur.
The Mauryan administration had one of the earliest known departments for animal welfare.
Ashoka appointed special officers (Dhamma Mahamatras) dedicated to moral and ethical governance.
The Mauryan postal system (via runners) ensured communication across the vast empire.
Mains Key Points
The Mauryan central administration was highly centralized and bureaucratic.
The king was supreme but assisted by ministers, priests, military, and provincial officers.
The Arthashastra provides a detailed account of Adhyakshas (superintendents) and state organization.
Ashoka introduced Dhamma Mahamatras, reflecting moral and welfare dimensions in administration.
The Saptanga theory shows the holistic view of statecraft in ancient India.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Saptanga theory → 7 limbs of state from Arthashastra.
Adhyakshas supervised every department (agriculture, trade, mines, liquor, salt, etc.).
Dhamma Mahamatras → introduced by Ashoka.
Rajukas → rural justice officers (mentioned in edicts).
Pradeshikas → provincial governors.
Mauryan Administration: Provincial, Local & Municipal
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire had a well-structured administrative system at provincial, district, village, and municipal levels. This ensured control over the vast empire from Pataliputra to farthest provinces.
The Mauryan Empire had a well-structured administrative system at provincial, district, village, and municipal levels. This ensured control over the vast empire from Pataliputra to farthest provinces.
Detailed Notes (35 points)
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Provincial Administration
• Empire divided into 4 main provinces: **Tosali (East, Odisha), Ujjain (West), Suvarnagiri (South, Karnataka), Taxila (North-West)**; Pataliputra remained the capital.
• Each province governed by a **Kumara (royal prince)** or **Aryaputra**, acting as viceroy.
• Assisted by a council of ministers and provincial officers.
• Purpose: implement royal orders, collect taxes, maintain law and order, oversee army.
• Regular inspections by central officers (Pradeshikas, Rajukas).
Local Administration (District & Village)
• Provinces divided into districts (Ahara, Aharas), further into villages (Grama).
• **District Officers:** Pradeshika, Rajuka, Yukta.
- Pradeshika → supervised law and order, tax collection.
- Rajuka → rural administration, land measurement, justice.
- Yukta → clerks/record keepers, revenue accounts.
• **Village Administration:**
- Village was the smallest unit of administration.
- Headed by **Gramika (village headman)**.
- Responsible for collection of revenue, maintaining records, law and order.
- Villages largely enjoyed autonomy in day-to-day matters.
Municipal Administration
• **Megasthenes (Indica)** gives detailed account of municipal administration at **Pataliputra**.
• City administration managed by a **Municipal Council of 30 members**, divided into 6 committees (boards of 5 members each).
• Committees dealt with:
1. Industrial regulation and artisans.
2. Foreigners (registration, welfare).
3. Registration of births and deaths.
4. Trade and commerce regulation.
5. Sale of manufactured goods.
6. Collection of taxes and excise duties.
• Ensured efficient urban management in capital and other large cities.
Important Officials of Municipal Administration
• **Nagar Adhyaksha:** City superintendent.
• **Sitadhyaksha:** Superintendent of agriculture (influenced urban food supply).
• **Samastha Adhyaksha:** Superintendent of markets.
• **Pautavadhyaksha:** In charge of weights and measures.
• **Sulka Adhyaksha:** Superintendent of customs and tolls.
• These officials ensured order, regulated markets, and supervised taxation in towns.
Mauryan Provincial Capitals
| Province | Capital |
|---|---|
| East | Tosali (Odisha) |
| West | Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh) |
| South | Suvarnagiri (Karnataka) |
| North-West | Taxila (Pakistan) |
| Central | Pataliputra (Bihar) |
Municipal Committees at Pataliputra (Megasthenes)
| Committee | Functions |
|---|---|
| Industry & Artisans | Regulated crafts, guilds, production |
| Foreigners | Registration, welfare, regulation |
| Births & Deaths | Maintained vital statistics |
| Trade & Commerce | Regulated trade activities |
| Manufactured Goods | Regulated quality & sale of products |
| Taxes & Duties | Collected taxes, tolls, customs |
Fun Facts
Pataliputra’s municipal council of 30 members is one of the earliest recorded urban local governance systems in the world.
Each Mauryan province was governed by a prince (Kumara), ensuring loyalty to the throne.
Village assemblies had autonomy in day-to-day matters, showing a balance of centralization and local self-rule.
Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a large, fortified city with wooden palisades and 64 gates.
Mains Key Points
The Mauryan Empire balanced centralization with provincial and local administration.
Provincial capitals ensured control over distant regions through royal princes.
Village autonomy allowed integration of local traditions with imperial authority.
Municipal administration of Pataliputra was highly advanced with specialized committees.
This multi-tiered structure ensured efficiency in governance of a vast empire.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Mauryan provinces → Tosali, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri, Taxila.
Kumara (Aryaputra) = Viceroy of provinces.
Pradeshika, Rajuka, Yukta = district officers.
Municipal council of 30 members at Pataliputra (Megasthenes).
6 committees → Industry, Foreigners, Birth-Death, Trade, Manufactured goods, Taxes.
Mauryan Administration: Military & Espionage System
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire had one of the largest and most organized armies of the ancient world. Alongside, its espionage system described in the Arthashastra made it a highly centralized and secure state.
The Mauryan Empire had one of the largest and most organized armies of the ancient world. Alongside, its espionage system described in the Arthashastra made it a highly centralized and secure state.
Detailed Notes (29 points)
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Military Administration
• Mauryan army was the largest standing army of its time, described by Megasthenes in *Indica*.
• Components: Infantry, Cavalry, Elephants, Chariots, Navy.
• Strength (as per Megasthenes):
- Infantry: 6,00,000
- Cavalry: 30,000
- Elephants: 9,000
- Chariots: 8,000
• Maintained by taxes and land revenue.
• Army controlled by **Senapati (Commander-in-Chief)** under the king.
• **Military Board:** According to Megasthenes, a 30-member war office was divided into 6 committees of 5 members each:
1. Cavalry
2. Elephants
3. Chariots
4. Infantry
5. Navy
6. Transport & Commissariat (supplies, provisions).
• Forts (Durga) played a key role in defense (Saptanga theory).
• Army elephants were a unique feature of Indian military might.
Espionage System
• Described in detail in **Arthashastra (Kautilya)** as the 'eyes and ears of the king'.
• Two categories of spies:
- **Sansthana (Stationary spies):** Posed as householders, ascetics, merchants, beggars, artisans to collect information.
- **Sanchari (Mobile spies):** Wandering monks, traders, entertainers, prostitutes, who moved across regions to gather intelligence.
• **Gudhapurushas:** Secret agents directly under the king.
• Spies monitored officials, generals, and even princes for loyalty.
• Espionage also used for foreign intelligence, enemy movements, public opinion, and suppression of rebellions.
• Use of secret funds from the treasury to maintain spy network.
• Ashokan edicts also reflect surveillance by Rajukas and Pradeshikas to ensure justice and order.
Composition of Mauryan Army (as per Megasthenes)
| Force | Strength |
|---|---|
| Infantry | 6,00,000 |
| Cavalry | 30,000 |
| Elephants | 9,000 |
| Chariots | 8,000 |
| Navy | Not quantified but significant for trade & defense |
Military Board Committees (Megasthenes)
| Committee | Function |
|---|---|
| Cavalry | Training, maintenance of horses |
| Elephants | Care, training, use in war |
| Chariots | Maintenance, deployment in battles |
| Infantry | Recruitment, arms, discipline |
| Navy | Riverine & coastal defense |
| Transport & Commissariat | Food, arms supply, logistics |
Types of Spies in Mauryan Empire
| Type | Role |
|---|---|
| Sansthana (Stationary) | Settled spies posing as householders, ascetics, merchants |
| Sanchari (Mobile) | Moving spies like wandering monks, entertainers, prostitutes |
| Gudhapurushas | Secret agents directly reporting to the king |
| Dutas | Messengers & diplomatic envoys |
| Vishakanyas | Poison maidens used for secret assassinations (mentioned in Arthashastra) |
Fun Facts
The Mauryan army was larger than Alexander’s invasion force and even contemporary Hellenistic armies.
War elephants gave Mauryans a unique military advantage — used effectively in battles.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra described espionage as more important than military power itself.
The concept of Vishakanyas (poison-maidens) shows use of unconventional tactics in espionage.
Mains Key Points
The Mauryan army was the largest standing army in ancient India and a pillar of imperial power.
Military board ensured specialization in different branches of the army.
Espionage was institutionalized, ensuring control over officials, provinces, and enemies.
Kautilya emphasized spies as essential for stability of the state.
Together, military and espionage made the Mauryan Empire highly centralized and secure.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Mauryan army → Infantry 6 lakh, Cavalry 30k, Elephants 9k, Chariots 8k.
Military Board → 30 members, 6 committees (Megasthenes).
Spies = Sansthana (stationary), Sanchari (mobile).
Dhamma Mahamatras ≠ spies, but Ashoka’s moral officers.
Vishakanyas mentioned in Arthashastra, not in edicts.
Mauryan Administration: Revenue & Judicial System
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire had a highly organized revenue system to maintain its vast army and administration, along with a judicial system influenced by both Arthashastra and Ashokan Dhamma.
The Mauryan Empire had a highly organized revenue system to maintain its vast army and administration, along with a judicial system influenced by both Arthashastra and Ashokan Dhamma.
Detailed Notes (27 points)
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Revenue Administration
• Land revenue was the main source of income (approx. 1/4th to 1/6th of produce).
• Collected in kind or cash; measured by officials (Rajukas).
• Other sources of revenue:
- Customs duties (Sulka).
- Mines and forests (crown monopoly).
- Salt, liquor, gambling tax (regulated by Adhyakshas).
- Pastoral tax (Bali).
- Taxes on trade and professions.
• Adhyakshas supervised various departments: agriculture, commerce, mines, markets, forests.
• Revenue used to maintain the army, officials, welfare projects (roads, stupas, hospitals).
• Ashoka’s edicts emphasize reducing burden on peasants and promoting welfare.
Judicial Administration
• King was the supreme judge — final authority in justice.
• Arthashastra lays emphasis on strict law enforcement (Danda-niti).
• Different courts:
- Royal court at Pataliputra for appeals.
- Provincial courts under Kumara (viceroy).
- District courts under Pradeshika and Rajuka.
- Village-level justice by Gramika.
• Officers in judiciary:
- **Rajukas:** Given authority to pass death sentences, also responsible for justice in rural areas (mentioned in Ashokan edicts).
- **Pradeshikas:** District-level officers administering justice and tax collection.
- **Dhamma Mahamatras:** Ensured justice with compassion; promoted moral principles in judiciary.
• Punishments: Harsh and deterrent — fines, imprisonment, mutilation, death penalty (as per Arthashastra).
• Ashoka’s reforms made punishments more humane — stress on reform, pardons, welfare of prisoners.
• Dual nature: Arthashastra = harsh laws; Ashoka’s Dhamma = moral justice and compassion.
Sources of Mauryan Revenue
| Source | Details |
|---|---|
| Land Revenue | 1/4th–1/6th of produce (main source) |
| Customs (Sulka) | Taxes on imports, exports, tolls |
| Mines & Forests | State monopoly on resources |
| Salt & Liquor Tax | Controlled by Adhyakshas |
| Pastoral Tax (Bali) | From cattle and herders |
| Trade & Professions | Guild taxes, artisans, shopkeepers |
Levels of Judiciary in Mauryan Empire
| Level | Authority |
|---|---|
| Capital (Pataliputra) | King & Royal Court |
| Provincial | Kumara (Prince as Viceroy) |
| District | Pradeshika, Rajuka |
| Village | Gramika (Village Headman) |
Fun Facts
Revenue officials (Rajukas) combined both judicial and fiscal powers.
The Mauryan empire possibly had one of the world’s first recorded systems of birth-death registration (as per municipal boards).
Ashoka introduced humanitarian reforms like release of prisoners during festivals.
Kautilya advocated harsh punishments including use of spies in trials.
Mains Key Points
The Mauryan revenue system was centralized and diversified, ensuring resources for army and administration.
Land revenue formed the backbone of the economy, but trade and monopoly taxes were also significant.
Judiciary combined strict Arthashastra principles with Ashoka’s humane reforms.
Rajukas highlight fusion of fiscal and judicial authority at district level.
This dual approach of coercion and compassion ensured stability of the empire.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Main revenue → Land tax (1/4th–1/6th of produce).
Rajukas → revenue + judicial authority.
Pradeshikas → district officers (justice + tax).
Ashoka reduced burden on peasants (edicts).
Dual nature → Arthashastra = harsh law; Ashoka = humane justice.
Mauryan Empire: Trade, Currency & Society
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire controlled an extensive network of trade routes — both inland and overseas. A regulated currency system and a hierarchical social order ensured integration of the vast empire.
The Mauryan Empire controlled an extensive network of trade routes — both inland and overseas. A regulated currency system and a hierarchical social order ensured integration of the vast empire.
Detailed Notes (28 points)
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Trade and Commerce
• Extensive internal trade — road networks (Royal Highway from Pataliputra to Taxila).
• Riverine routes — Ganga, Indus, Godavari, Krishna were major arteries.
• External trade — with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Hellenistic kingdoms.
• Exports: textiles, spices, pearls, semi-precious stones, ivory, steel (wootz).
• Imports: horses, luxury goods, wine, glass, high-breed cattle.
• Trade controlled and taxed by **Adhyakshas** (Panya Adhyaksha = commerce superintendent).
• Guilds (Shrenis) of merchants and artisans organized production and trade.
• Ports: Tamralipti (Bengal), Bhrigukachcha (Broach, Gujarat), Sopara (Maharashtra).
Coins and Currency
• Primary currency → **Punch-marked silver coins** (Karshapanas).
• Copper coins also circulated locally.
• Coins were regulated by state → Pautavadhyaksha supervised weights & measures.
• Nishka (gold) and Satamana (silver) were older units still in use.
• Barter also existed, especially in rural areas.
• Coinage shows centralized economy and expanding trade.
Mauryan Society
• Highly stratified society, guided by **varna system**.
• Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras — rigid but not as extreme as later times.
• State recognized social hierarchies but emphasized Dhamma for moral unity.
• Women:
- High status in aristocracy, but overall decline compared to Vedic age.
- Ashoka’s inscriptions mention welfare for women, but also restrictions.
• Slavery and forced labor (Vishti) existed, especially for state projects.
• Joint family was the norm; patriarchal structure.
• Society included diverse sects — Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas, materialists (Lokayatas).
• Social mobility existed through guilds and urban professions.
• Ashoka’s Dhamma aimed at reducing caste conflicts and promoting tolerance.
Mauryan Trade Network
| Type | Details |
|---|---|
| Internal Trade | Royal highways, village markets, guild-based production |
| River Trade | Ganga, Indus, Godavari, Krishna |
| Maritime Trade | Ports: Tamralipti, Bhrigukachcha, Sopara |
| Exports | Textiles, spices, ivory, pearls, steel |
| Imports | Horses, wine, luxury goods, glass, cattle |
Mauryan Currency System
| Type of Coin | Material | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| Karshapana | Silver | Punch-marked coins; main currency |
| Copper Coins | Copper | Local circulation |
| Nishka | Gold | Traditional high-value unit |
| Satamana | Silver | Older silver weight-based currency |
| Barter | Grain & goods | Prevalent in villages |
Features of Mauryan Society
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Varna System | Rigid but flexible in guild-based urban life |
| Position of Women | Declining status; welfare mentioned in edicts |
| Slavery | Slavery & forced labor (Vishti) existed |
| Family | Joint family, patriarchal system |
| Religion | Diverse sects: Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas |
Fun Facts
Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins in India, issued even before Mauryas but standardized under them.
The Mauryan highway system allowed officials to send reports to Pataliputra quickly.
Tamralipti was the busiest port of the Mauryan period, linking India with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Megasthenes noted that Mauryan society was highly organized into occupational groups (like guilds).
Mains Key Points
Mauryan trade was both inland and overseas, with state-controlled taxation and guild system.
Punch-marked coins reflect standardization and growing monetization of the economy.
Society was hierarchical but accommodated multiple religions and occupational groups.
Women’s position declined, though Ashoka’s Dhamma attempted welfare measures.
Integration of economy and society under centralized state control ensured stability.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Main Mauryan coin = Silver punch-marked Karshapana.
Ports = Tamralipti, Bhrigukachcha, Sopara.
Main source of revenue = Land tax.
Guilds (Shrenis) = organized artisans & merchants.
Vishti = forced labor (common in Mauryan society).
Mauryan Empire: Art & Decline
Key Point
The Mauryan Empire (321–184 BCE) is remembered not only for its vast political power but also for its artistic achievements in stone architecture, sculpture, and stupas. However, after Ashoka’s death, the empire gradually disintegrated due to internal weaknesses and external pressures.
The Mauryan Empire (321–184 BCE) is remembered not only for its vast political power but also for its artistic achievements in stone architecture, sculpture, and stupas. However, after Ashoka’s death, the empire gradually disintegrated due to internal weaknesses and external pressures.
Detailed Notes (32 points)
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Mauryan Art
• Marked the transition from wood to stone architecture.
• Influence of Achaemenid-Persian and Hellenistic styles along with indigenous traditions.
# Stone Architecture
• **Pillars:** Monolithic sandstone pillars, highly polished, with animal capitals (Sarnath Lion Capital = National Emblem).
• **Polishing:** Characteristic Mauryan polish gave mirror-like shine.
# Stupas
• Ashoka built 84,000 stupas across his empire.
• Important stupas: Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati (later additions), Piprahwa (Kapilavastu).
• Hemispherical domes, railings, gateways (toranas in later phases).
# Rock-cut Architecture
• Lomas Rishi and Sudama caves in Barabar Hills (Bihar) → given to Ajivikas by Ashoka.
• Highly polished interiors; imitation of wooden architecture in stone.
# Sculpture
• Yaksha-Yakshi figures (folk traditions blended with Mauryan art).
• Examples: Didarganj Yakshi (Patna) → polished sandstone, life-like features.
• Animal capitals (bull, lion, elephant, horse) reflect symbolism of power and dharma.
Disintegration of Mauryan Empire
• After Ashoka’s death (232 BCE), empire weakened.
• Successors lacked ability and authority.
• The last Mauryan ruler → Brihadratha, killed by Pushyamitra Shunga in 184 BCE.
Reasons for the Decline
1. **Weak Successors:** Incompetent rulers after Ashoka (Dasharatha, Samprati, etc.).
2. **Over-centralization:** Empire too vast to manage without strong leadership.
3. **Financial Strain:** Huge army, officials, and welfare measures drained treasury.
4. **Military Weakness:** Pacifist policy of Ashoka weakened offensive capacity.
5. **Rise of Regional Powers:** Provincial governors asserted independence.
6. **Brahmana Reaction:** Ashoka’s pro-Buddhist Dhamma alienated orthodox Brahmanas.
7. **Foreign Invasions:** Bactrian-Greek invasions (Demetrius, Menander) exploited weakness.
8. **Internal Revolts:** Rebellions by local tribes (Kalinga, Andhra, Punjab regions).
9. **Administrative Rigidity:** Highly centralized system collapsed without strong ruler.
• All these factors together led to fragmentation → Shunga dynasty replaced Mauryas.
Forms of Mauryan Art
| Form | Examples | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Pillars | Sarnath, Sanchi, Lauria Nandangarh | Monolithic, polished, animal capitals |
| Stupas | Sanchi, Bharhut, Piprahwa | Hemispherical dome, railings, symbolism |
| Rock-cut Caves | Barabar Hills (Lomas Rishi, Sudama) | Highly polished, Ajivika donation |
| Sculpture | Didarganj Yakshi, Yaksha figures | Folk + Mauryan polish, realism |
Reasons for Decline of Mauryan Empire
| Reason | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Weak Successors | Ineffective rulers after Ashoka |
| Over-centralization | Vast empire hard to control |
| Financial Crisis | Treasury exhausted by army & welfare |
| Pacifist Policy | Ashoka reduced military aggressiveness |
| Rise of Provinces | Governors declared independence |
| Brahmana Opposition | Ashoka’s Buddhism alienated Brahmanas |
| Foreign Invasions | Bactrian-Greek attacks |
| Internal Revolts | Regional uprisings (Kalinga, Andhra, Punjab) |
| Rigid Administration | Collapse of centralized system without strong king |
Fun Facts
The Sarnath Lion Capital is now India’s National Emblem.
Mauryan polish gave a mirror-like shine to stone surfaces — unmatched in later centuries.
Ashoka is said to have built 84,000 stupas to enshrine relics of Buddha.
Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, was killed during a military parade by Pushyamitra Shunga.
Mains Key Points
Mauryan art marks the beginning of stone architecture in India.
Stupas, pillars, and caves reflect state patronage of religion and art.
Decline due to combination of weak rulers, financial strain, and external invasions.
Ashoka’s Dhamma weakened military aggressiveness, making empire vulnerable.
Fragmentation after Ashoka shows dependence of empire on strong central leadership.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Didarganj Yakshi = example of Mauryan sculpture + polish.
Barabar Caves = Ajivikas, Ashoka & Dasaratha’s donation.
Sarnath Lion Capital = National Emblem.
Last Mauryan ruler = Brihadratha (killed by Pushyamitra Shunga).
Main cause of decline = Weak successors + financial crisis.
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