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Crafts, Textiles and Festivals — UPSC Art & Culture Notes

Free, exam-focused notes for UPSC Prelims and Mains, with Prelims tips and Mains points for every topic. 3 topics.

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Textiles and Handlooms of India: GI-Tagged Weaves and Embroideries

India has the world's richest living textile tradition: silks (Banarasi, Kanchipuram, Muga), ikat weaves (Patola, Pochampally, Sambalpuri), fine cottons (Chanderi, Jamdani), embroideries (Phulkari, Chikankari, Kantha, Kasuti) and prints and dyes (Bandhani, Ajrakh, Kalamkari). Many are protected as Geographical Indications (GI), and handloom is one of the largest sources of rural, especially women's, employment.

1. A Long History

A dyed cotton fragment and spindle whorls from Mohenjo-daro show cotton use in the Harappan age; Roman and later European trade prized Indian muslin, chintz and calico. Colonial machine-made imports ruined weavers, and the Swadeshi movement and Gandhi's khadi made the handloom a symbol of freedom.

2. Silk Weaves

Banarasi (Varanasi, UP): brocades with gold and silver zari, Mughal floral motifs. Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu): heavy mulberry silk with contrasting borders often joined by the korvai technique. Mysore silk (Karnataka), Paithani (Maharashtra; peacock and lotus pallu), Baluchari (Bengal; mythological scenes on the pallu).

Wild silks of the North-East: Muga (golden silk, unique to Assam), Eri ('peace silk', made without killing the pupa) and Tasar (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh). India is the only country producing all four commercial silks — mulberry, tasar, eri and muga.

3. Ikat and Fine Cottons

Ikat means the yarn is tie-dyed before weaving. Patola of Patan (Gujarat) is a rare double ikat (both warp and weft dyed); Pochampally (Telangana) and Sambalpuri / Bomkai (Odisha, locally 'bandha') are other famous ikats.

Cottons: Chanderi and Maheshwari (Madhya Pradesh), Jamdani (Bengal; motifs woven in by hand on fine muslin), Kota Doria (Rajasthan; square check weave), Ilkal (Karnataka), Mekhela chador (Assam), Kerala kasavu with gold borders.

Shawls: Pashmina and the tapestry-woven Kani shawl of Kashmir; Kullu shawls (Himachal); tribal Naga shawls and Toda embroidered shawls (Nilgiris).

4. Embroidery

Phulkari (Punjab; darn-stitch 'flower work'), Chikankari (Lucknow; white-on-white shadow work), Kantha (Bengal; running stitch on layered old saris), Kasuti (Karnataka; counted-thread), Zardozi (metallic thread), Kashmiri sozni, Gujarati mirror work, and Pipli appliqué (Odisha).

5. Dyeing and Printing

Bandhani (Gujarat, Rajasthan; tie-dye) and Leheriya (Rajasthan; wave pattern); Ajrakh (Kutch and Sindh; resist block printing with natural indigo and madder); Sanganeri and Bagru prints (Rajasthan); Kalamkari — the Srikalahasti style is hand-painted with a pen (kalam) and shows epic scenes, while the Machilipatnam (Pedana) style is block-printed.

6. GI Protection and Policy

GI law: the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 came into force in 2003; the GI Registry is in Chennai (under DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce); registration lasts 10 years and is renewable. Darjeeling Tea was the first GI; handicrafts and handloom form the largest group of Indian GIs.

Support: National Handloom Day on 7 August (since 2015, recalling the Swadeshi movement launched on 7 August 1905); India Handloom Brand and Handloom Mark; the National Handloom Development Programme; the Handlooms (Reservation of Articles for Production) Act, 1985. The Fourth All India Handloom Census (2019–20) counted about 35 lakh handloom workers, most of them women.

Practice

UPSC-style (Prelims): Which textile is a double ikat in which both warp and weft are resist-dyed before weaving? (Answer: Patola of Patan.)

UPSC-style (Mains): 'GI tags protect the name, not the weaver.' Discuss with reference to India's handloom sector.

Famous GI-tagged textiles
Textile	State	Type	Hallmark
Banarasi brocade	Uttar Pradesh	Silk weave	Gold-silver zari, Mughal motifs
Kanchipuram silk	Tamil Nadu	Silk weave	Heavy silk, contrast borders
Patola	Gujarat	Double ikat	Warp and weft both dyed
Pochampally ikat	Telangana	Ikat	Geometric patterns
Sambalpuri	Odisha	Ikat (bandha)	Shankha, chakra, phula motifs
Muga silk	Assam	Wild silk	Natural golden sheen
Chanderi	Madhya Pradesh	Cotton-silk	Sheer texture, coin motifs
Phulkari	Punjab	Embroidery	Darn-stitch flowers
Chikankari	Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow)	Embroidery	White-on-white shadow work
Kalamkari (Srikalahasti)	Andhra Pradesh	Hand-painting	Pen-drawn epic scenes

Prelims tips

Patola (Patan, Gujarat) → double ikat; Pochampally and Sambalpuri → ikat.
Muga silk → golden, unique to Assam; India produces all four commercial silks.
Kalamkari: Srikalahasti = pen-painted; Machilipatnam (Pedana) = block-printed.
GI Act 1999 (in force 2003); Registry at Chennai; 10-year renewable protection; first GI = Darjeeling Tea.
National Handloom Day = 7 August (Swadeshi movement launched 7 August 1905).
Phulkari → Punjab; Chikankari → Lucknow; Kasuti → Karnataka; Kantha → Bengal.

Mains points

Handloom is a livelihood for millions, largely women and rural households, and is environment-friendly (low energy, natural dyes); it is central to inclusive growth and to the circular, slow-fashion economy.
Challenges: competition from cheap powerloom imitations, rising yarn prices, middlemen, low wages, weak credit and marketing, and young people leaving the craft.
GI tags add value only if enforced and marketed: authorised-user registration of weavers, testing labs, QR-code authentication and action against fakes are needed.
Way forward: direct e-commerce and Government e-Marketplace access, designer collaborations, cluster-based common facilities, and insurance and pensions for weavers.

Did you know?

A single Patola sari can take several months to weave because every thread is dyed to a precise plan before it reaches the loom.
The word 'calico' comes from Calicut (Kozhikode), from where Indian cotton cloth was exported to Europe.

Indian Handicrafts: Metal, Wood, Stone and Clay

India's crafts range from Dhokra lost-wax casting and Bidriware inlay to Channapatna and Kondapalli toys, pietra dura inlay at Agra and the stone carvers of Mamallapuram. Many are GI-tagged, the craft of the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru is on UNESCO's intangible heritage list, and schemes such as PM Vishwakarma support artisans.

1. Metal Crafts

Dhokra: non-ferrous lost-wax casting by tribal and nomadic metalsmiths of Chhattisgarh (Bastar), Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal (Bankura); figures of animals, deities and tribal life. It is the same technique as the Harappan Dancing Girl.

Bidriware (Bidar, Karnataka; developed under the Bahmanis): an alloy of zinc and copper inlaid with silver, then blackened with a paste containing soil from the Bidar fort, so the silver stands out.

Thatheras of Jandiala Guru (Punjab): hand-beaten brass and copper utensils; inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2014. Others: Moradabad brass (UP), Pembarthi brassware (Telangana), bell-metal of Sarthebari (Assam), the Aranmula kannadi metal mirror (Kerala) and Swamimalai bronzes (Tamil Nadu).

Bastar wrought iron craft and the koftgari (gold or silver damascening on steel) of Rajasthan are other notable metal traditions.

2. Wood and Lacquer

Toys: Channapatna (Karnataka, 'toy town'; lacquered ivory-wood toys); Kondapalli (Andhra Pradesh; light tella poniki wood, village scenes); Etikoppaka (Andhra Pradesh; lacquer with natural dyes); Nirmal toys and paintings (Telangana); Varanasi wooden lacquerware.

Carving: Kashmiri walnut-wood carving and khatamband geometric ceilings; Saharanpur wood carving (UP); Sankheda lacquered teak furniture (Gujarat); temple chariots and ceilings of Kerala and Karnataka.

3. Stone Crafts

Pietra dura / parchin kari (Agra): semi-precious stones inlaid in white Makrana marble, as on the Taj Mahal. Mamallapuram (Tamil Nadu) stone sculpture continues the Pallava tradition; Odisha's Konark and Puri stone carvers; soft-stone (soapstone) carving of Gaya and Odisha.

4. Clay and Other Materials

Pottery and terracotta (see 'Pottery Traditions of India'): Jaipur blue pottery, Khurja, Nizamabad black pottery, Longpi black stone pottery (Manipur), Bankura horses and Molela votive plaques.

Fibre, paper and others: Kashmir papier-mâché; cane and bamboo crafts of the North-East; Sikki grass craft (Bihar); Thanjavur dolls and art plates; Pattamadai mats (Tamil Nadu); lac bangles of Hyderabad and Jaipur.

5. Support for Artisans

Institutions: the Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts), Ministry of Textiles; the All India Handicrafts Board (1952) set up under Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay; Shilp Guru and National Handicraft Awards.

Schemes: PM Vishwakarma (launched 17 September 2023) gives recognition, skill training, toolkit support and collateral-free credit to artisans in 18 traditional trades; One District One Product (ODOP) promotes a signature product of each district.

Practice

UPSC-style (Prelims): Bidriware, an inlay craft of zinc-copper alloy with silver, is associated with which state? (Answer: Karnataka — Bidar.)

Crafts and their homes
Craft	Material	Place / State	Feature
Dhokra	Brass/bronze	Bastar, Odisha, Bankura	Lost-wax casting
Bidriware	Zinc-copper alloy + silver	Bidar, Karnataka	Silver inlay on black
Thathera utensils	Brass, copper	Jandiala Guru, Punjab	UNESCO ICH (2014)
Aranmula kannadi	Metal alloy	Kerala	Metal mirror
Channapatna toys	Wood, lacquer	Karnataka	'Toy town'
Kondapalli toys	Tella poniki wood	Andhra Pradesh	Village-life figures
Pietra dura	Marble + semi-precious stones	Agra, UP	Taj Mahal style inlay
Longpi pottery	Serpentine stone + clay	Manipur	Black, wheel-free pottery

Prelims tips

Dhokra → lost-wax, tribal metal craft (Bastar, Odisha, Bengal).
Bidriware → Bidar; zinc-copper alloy, silver inlay, blackened with Bidar fort soil.
Thatheras of Jandiala Guru (Punjab) → UNESCO ICH list, 2014.
Channapatna → Karnataka; Kondapalli and Etikoppaka → Andhra Pradesh; Nirmal → Telangana.
PM Vishwakarma (17 September 2023) → 18 traditional trades.
Aranmula kannadi → metal mirror of Kerala.

Mains points

Crafts are a 'living heritage' and a large non-farm livelihood; they embody sustainable practices (local materials, natural dyes, repair culture) valuable for green growth.
Problems: falling demand against factory goods, middlemen, scarcity of raw materials (forest produce, metals), lack of design innovation and the caste-based stigma that pushes youth away.
GI tags, ODOP and PM Vishwakarma can raise incomes if linked to markets, e-commerce, export promotion and protection against machine-made fakes.
Crafts as soft power: Indian crafts are popular diplomatic gifts and draw cultural tourists; craft villages and museums (such as the Crafts Museum, Delhi) can link heritage with tourism.

Did you know?

Channapatna toys were traditionally coloured with natural dyes and lacquer, making them safe for children to chew.
The exact alloy recipe of the Aranmula mirror is a closely guarded family secret of a few artisan families.

Festivals, Fairs and Calendars of India

India's festivals follow several calendars — the lunisolar Hindu calendar, solar regional calendars, the lunar Hijri calendar and the Gregorian — and the official National Calendar (Saka era) adopted in 1957. Harvest and New Year festivals, tribal festivals and great fairs such as the Kumbh Mela (UNESCO intangible heritage) and the Pushkar fair reflect both regional diversity and shared seasonal rhythms.

1. Calendars and Eras

National Calendar: based on the Saka era (beginning 78 CE), adopted from 22 March 1957 on the advice of the Calendar Reform Committee headed by Meghnad Saha; 1 Chaitra falls on 22 March (21 March in a leap year). It is used alongside the Gregorian calendar in the Gazette and official communications.

Other eras: Vikram Samvat (57 BCE; common in north and west India), the Kollam era of Kerala (825 CE), the Bengali San, the Hijri era (622 CE; purely lunar, so Islamic festivals move about 11 days earlier each year), the Sikh Nanakshahi calendar and the Parsi calendar.

Panchang: the Hindu almanac has five limbs — tithi (lunar day), vara (weekday), nakshatra (lunar mansion), yoga and karana. An extra month (adhik maas) is added roughly every three years to keep lunar months in step with the solar year. Months are counted amanta (new moon to new moon, mostly south and west) or purnimanta (full moon to full moon, mostly north).

2. New Year and Harvest Festivals

Lunar New Year (Chaitra): Gudi Padwa (Maharashtra), Ugadi (Karnataka, Andhra, Telangana), Cheti Chand (Sindhi), Navreh (Kashmiri Pandits). Solar New Year (mid-April): Baisakhi (Punjab), Vishu (Kerala), Puthandu (Tamil Nadu), Pohela Boishakh (Bengal), Bohag (Rongali) Bihu (Assam), Pana Sankranti (Odisha).

Winter harvest (mid-January, sun entering Capricorn): Makar Sankranti, Pongal (Tamil Nadu; with Jallikattu), Lohri (Punjab), Magh (Bhogali) Bihu (Assam), Uttarayan kite festival (Gujarat). Other harvests: Onam (Kerala), Nuakhai (western Odisha), Wangala (Garo, Meghalaya), Chhath (Bihar; worship of the Sun).

3. Regional and Community Festivals

Hindu: Durga Puja (Bengal; UNESCO 2021), Navratri and Garba (Gujarat; UNESCO 2023), Deepavali (UNESCO 2025), Ganesh Chaturthi (made a public festival by Tilak in 1893), Rath Yatra (Puri), Thrissur Pooram (Kerala), Bonalu and Bathukamma (Telangana), Teej and Gangaur (Rajasthan). Other faiths: Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha and Muharram; Christmas and Easter; Buddha Purnima and Losar; Mahavir Jayanti and Paryushana; Gurpurab and Hola Mohalla; Navroz.

Tribal and North-East: Sarhul, Karma and Sohrai (Jharkhand), Bhagoria (MP), Medaram Sammakka-Saralamma Jatara (Telangana; biennial, one of the largest tribal gatherings), Hornbill Festival (Nagaland, 1–10 December), Chapchar Kut (Mizoram), Sangai Festival (Manipur), Hemis festival (Ladakh), Kharchi Puja (Tripura).

4. Great Fairs (Melas)

Kumbh Mela: rotates among Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nashik-Trimbakeshwar according to the positions of Jupiter, the Sun and the Moon; a Purna Kumbh at each site every 12 years; inscribed on UNESCO's intangible heritage list in 2017. A Maha Kumbh was held at Prayagraj in January–February 2025.

Other fairs: Pushkar camel and cattle fair (Rajasthan, Kartik month), Sonepur cattle fair (Bihar), the Urs of Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer, Ambubachi Mela (Kamakhya, Assam), Kullu Dussehra (begins on Vijayadashami), Mysuru Dasara, the 75-day Bastar Dussehra, Hampi Utsav and the Goa Carnival.

Festival sports and law: bull-taming Jallikattu (Tamil Nadu) and buffalo-racing Kambala (coastal Karnataka) were permitted by state amendment laws, which a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court upheld in 2023 — a debate between animal welfare and cultural rights.

Practice

UPSC-style (Prelims): The National Calendar of India is based on which era, and from which date was it adopted? (Answer: Saka era; 22 March 1957.)

Festivals at a glance
Festival	State / community	Season	Note
Pongal	Tamil Nadu	Mid-January	Harvest; Jallikattu
Bihu (three)	Assam	April, October, January	Agricultural cycle
Onam	Kerala	August–September	King Mahabali; boat races
Nuakhai	Western Odisha	August–September	Eating the new rice
Hornbill	Nagaland	1–10 December	Festival of festivals of Naga tribes
Sarhul	Jharkhand (tribal)	Spring	Worship of the sal tree
Medaram Jatara	Telangana (Koya tribe)	Every two years	Tribal goddesses Sammakka-Saralamma
Kumbh Mela	Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain, Nashik	Astronomical cycle	UNESCO ICH 2017
Pushkar Mela	Rajasthan	Kartik (October–November)	Camel and cattle fair

Prelims tips

National Calendar → Saka era (78 CE), adopted 22 March 1957; Meghnad Saha committee.
Vikram Samvat begins 57 BCE; Hijri begins 622 CE (lunar, about 11 days shorter than the solar year).
Kumbh sites: Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain, Nashik; UNESCO ICH 2017.
Hornbill → Nagaland; Wangala → Garo (Meghalaya); Chapchar Kut → Mizoram; Sarhul → Jharkhand.
Public Ganesh festival → Tilak, 1893.
Festivals on UNESCO ICH list: Kumbh (2017), Durga Puja (2021), Garba (2023), Deepavali (2025).

Mains points

Festivals tie communities to agricultural cycles and ecology (harvests, monsoon, sacred groves) and keep folk music, dance and crafts alive.
Festivals can build social cohesion (shared celebrations across faiths, Sufi urs) but also become flashpoints of communal tension; administrations must balance celebration with public order.
Mass gatherings like the Kumbh require crowd management, sanitation and disaster preparedness; stampedes at religious events show the need for technology-based crowd control and strict planning.
Environmental concerns — immersion of painted idols, firecracker pollution, noise and plastic waste — call for eco-friendly practices without hurting faith.
Festival tourism (Hornbill, Pushkar, Kumbh) is an economic opportunity, but commercialisation should not dilute the cultural meaning for local communities.

Did you know?

Assam has three Bihus — Bohag (spring), Kati (autumn) and Magh (winter) — each linked to a stage of the rice crop.
Kullu Dussehra begins on Vijayadashami, the day celebrations end in most of India.

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