Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom — UPSC Medieval History Notes

I. Introduction: The Deccan Deadlock

Context : The 14th century saw the emergence of two powerful, antagonistic kingdoms in South India: the Vijayanagara Empire (south of the Tungabhadra) and the Bahmani Sultanate (north of the Krishna).

Clash of Interests : The rivalry was not merely religious, but primarily economic and strategic, focused on controlling three highly valuable, contested regions.

Result : The frequent wars were generally inconclusive, maintaining a volatile military and political status quo, with temporary advantages shifting between the two empires.

II. Core Contested Regions (The Triad of Conflict)

1. The Tungabhadra Doab

Location : The fertile, 30,000 square-mile region situated between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.

Strategic Value : It was historically the bone of contention in South India (earlier fought over by the Western Chalukyas/Cholas and the Yadavas/Hoysalas) due to its vast agricultural wealth and economic resources.

2. The Krishna-Godavari Delta

Location : The expansive and highly fertile river basin and coastal delta region in the east.

Strategic Value : The numerous ports in this region provided control over the foreign trade of the eastern Deccan, making its mastery vital for external revenue.

3. Marathwada and the Konkan Coast

Location : The struggle was for access to and control of the narrow, fertile Konkan coastal strip (between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea), particularly the port of Goa .

Strategic Value : Goa was the primary outlet for trade and the crucial inlet for importing high-quality horses from Iran and Iraq, essential for maintaining the powerful cavalry of both empires.

I. Origin, Dynastic Change, and Foreign Accounts

Founders : Harihara and Bukka (Sangam dynasty) were originally Kakatiya feudatories who established the state amidst the Tughlaq pressure in the South.

Capital : The city of Vidyanagar (later Vijayanagar) was founded on the Tungabhadra river.

Dynastic Shift : The succession of four dynasties (Sangam, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu) was often driven by military necessity, as powerful generals usurped power to stabilize the realm against the Bahmani threat.

Foreign Observers : Travelers like Nicolo Conti, Abdur Razzak, Domingo Paes, and Barbosa described the empire's immense wealth, vast army, and the highly organized urban structure of Hampi.

II. Imperial Zenith: Krishna Deva Raya (Tuluva Dynasty)

Strategic Titles : He earned the title Yavana Rajya Sthapna Chirya for diplomatically restoring a Bahmani prince to the throne, thereby ensuring the Sultanates remained fragmented.

Literature (Synthesis) : His reign was the “Golden Age of Telugu Literature”, patronizing the Ashta Diggajas (including Allasani Peddana and Tenali Ramakrishna). He personally wrote the Telugu epic Amukthamalyadha and the Sanskrit play Jambavati Kalyanam.

Architecture : Finalized the Vijayanagara style (Ornate pillars, massive Kalyana Mandapas) seen in the Vittalaswami and Hazara Ramaswamy temples.

III. Structural Strength and Decline

Political Structure : The empire functioned as a centralized military state built on the Nayankara System.

Nayankara System : Amara Nayakas were military-administrative chiefs assigned revenue rights in return for military contingents and local responsibilities. Calling the system simply ‘feudal’ obscures important regional variation and the continuing claims of the royal centre.

Talikota (1565 AD) : Aliya Rama Raya’s forces were defeated by a coalition of Deccan Sultanates. Hampi was extensively looted and abandoned as the principal capital, but Vijayanagara authority survived under the Aravidus from Penukonda and later Chandragiri.

Post-Talaikota : The empire survived in a reduced form under the Aravidu dynasty for another century, maintaining control from new capitals like Penukonda and Chandragiri.

I. Sangam Dynasty (1336–1485)

Harihara I & Bukka I (Founders) :

Role: Founders of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 AD on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.

Origin: Originally served as feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal.

Deva Raya II (The Greatest Sangama Ruler) :

Military: Recruited Muslim archers into the army to match the Bahmani cavalry's strength.

Literature: Patronized Kannada poets Kumara Vyasa and Chamarasa. Wrote the Sanskrit work Mahanataka Sudhanidhi.

Foreign Contact: Hosted the Persian chronicler Abdur Razzak.

II. Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570)

Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529) :

Titles: Held titles like Andhra Bhoja, Andhra Pitamah, and Yavana Rajya Sthapna Chirya (Establisher of the Yavana Kingdom, for restoring a Bahmani prince).

Cultural Zenith: His reign is the Golden Age of Telugu Literature. His court hosted the Ashta Diggajas (eight Telugu scholars), including Allasani Peddana (Father of Telugu Poetry).

Literature: Authored the Telugu epic Amukthamalyadha and the Sanskrit play Jambavati Kalyanam.

Architecture: Built the magnificent Vittalaswami Temple (Stone Chariot) and the Hazara Ramaswamy Temple at Hampi.

Foreign Contact: Contemporary of Mughal Emperor Babur and hosted Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Barbosa.

Aliya Rama Raya (Minister/De Facto Ruler) :

Role: The powerful minister who commanded the Vijayanagara forces in the disastrous Battle of Talaikota in 1565 AD, leading to the sacking of Hampi and the empire's permanent decline.

III. Other Notable Rulers and Figures

Saluva Narsimha : Founder of the Saluva Dynasty, instituting the first usurpation to stabilize the empire against external threats.

Veera Ballala III : The last major ruler of the Hoysala dynasty, whose territories were absorbed by Harihara I, contributing to the foundation of Vijayanagara.

Sri Ranga III : The last known ruler of the Aravidu Dynasty and the Vijayanagara Empire, ruling from Chandragiri after the fall of Hampi.

I. Central and Provincial Administration

King's Authority : The Raya (King) held absolute authority in executive, judicial, and legislative matters.

Hierarchy : Kingdom divided into Mandalams (Provinces) $ o$ Nadus (Districts) $ o$ Sthalas $ o$ Gramas (Villages).

Governors : The governor of the Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak; the Gram was headed by Gauda.

Key Officers : Important functionaries included Dalavay (Commander), Rayasam (Secretary/Accountant), Adaippam (Personal Attendant), and Kariya-karta (Executive Agents).

II. Amara Nayak System (Military Feudalism)

Nayaks : Top-grade army officers, known as Nayaks or Palaiagars (Poligars).

Amara Grant : Officers were granted land called Amaram in lieu of services, while soldiers were paid in cash.

Nayaka Duties : The Nayaka managed the Amaram, collected taxes, and used the income to maintain a powerful army, horses, elephants, and weapons of warfare. They were also commanders of forts and maintained temples/irrigation works.

Royal Army : The military consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants. The state employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train soldiers.

Horse Trade : High-breed horses were procured from Arabia and Gulf countries via the Malabar port, which was critical for their cavalry warfare.

Coinage : Rulers issued gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas.

III. Local Administration: The Ayagar System

Purpose : System of village functionaries that became widely prevalent in the 15th-16th century, replacing the older Nadu/Nattar system.

Ayagars : Hereditary village servants (Headmen, Accountant/Karnam, Watchmen/Talaiyari).

Payment : They were given a portion of land as Manya (tax-free) or direct payments in kind for their services, ensuring essential services (like the waterman/niranikkar, blacksmith, potter, etc.) were always available.

Significance : This system institutionalized the allocation of income from land for specific hereditary village offices.

IV. Socio-Economic Observations

Wealth : Foreign travellers (like Nuniz and Nicolo Conti) documented Vijayanagar as one of the wealthiest kingdoms globally, praising its splendour and prosperity.

Women's Roles : Nuniz recorded that women were employed in high-status roles in the palaces, including as wrestlers, astrologers, accountants, judges, and watch women.

Social Practices : Devadasi system was prevalent. The practice of Sohagaman (Sati) was honored among the royal families.

Trade/Taxes : Barbosa noted the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone, fostering a vibrant trade environment. Nuniz referred to the excavation of canals.

I. Critical Foreign Trade and Military Imports

Trade Control : Traveler Barbosa noted that Indian overseas trade was completely controlled by Muslim merchants, who received special treatment from the rulers due to their economic power.

Crucial Import (Horses) : The most critical import was high-quality war horses brought from Arabia, Syria, and Turkey to the west-coast ports (e.g., Goa, Malabar). This was essential for maintaining the superior cavalry needed against the Bahmani Sultanates, as good horses were not bred in India.

Strategic Ports : Goa and Malabar were the centers of this trade, supplying horses to Vijayanagar as well as the Deccani Sultanates.

Other Imports : Included ivory, pearls (from Persian Gulf/Ceylon), spices, precious stones (from Pegu), and luxury fabrics like velvet (Mecca) and silk (China).

Exports and Mining Industry

Major Exports : White rice, sugarcane, and iron were the major exports.

Diamond Industry : Diamonds were a key export, mined principally on the Krishna river and in Kurnool and Anantapur. Traveler Nuniz stated these mines were the richest in the world.

Related Industry : The mining activity led to the development of a great industry for cutting and polishing precious stones (diamonds, rubies, sapphires) in Vijayanagar and Malabar.

II. Internal Trade and Urban Life

Road Network : Contemporary foreign accounts highlight excellent roads and roadside facilities for travelers, supporting internal commerce.

Transport : Carts and pack-animals were used for grain and long-distance transport. Riverine shipping utilized the backwater-system on the west coast.

Trade Centers : The growth of pettai (markets) and santais (periodic fairs) indicated the spread of 'urbanism'.

Trade Fairs : Fairs were held along main roads leading to big temples, conducted by trade associations under the supervision of a leader called the Pattam swami.

Urban Segregation : Markets for agricultural and non-agricultural products were often separate in accordance with the left and right-hand caste affiliations.

Central Control : Unlike autonomous villages, urban affairs were controlled by local Governors appointed by the central administration, showing centralized control over commerce.

Temple Commerce : Temples were major urban commercial centers, involved in the trade of consecrated food and the sale of ritual functions.

I. Vijayanagara Society: Unique Structure

Secular Functions of Brahmins : Brahmans held prestige from sacred priestly functions and secular authority derived from controlling land and managing temples (as Devadanas were land grants to temples). This gave them ritual and economic control over other castes.

Dual Division (Valangai/Idangai) :

Right-Hand (Valangai): Primarily involved in Agricultural production and local trade in agricultural goods. (Often associated with Vaishnavas).

Left-Hand (Idangai): Engaged in mobile artisan production (craftsmen) and extensive trade in non-agricultural products. (Often associated with Shaivites).

Significance: This division profoundly influenced socio-economic competition and market structure.

Territorial Segmentation : Society was segmented based on natural subregion and associated occupational patterns. They preferred cross-cousin and maternal uncle-niece marriages.

Peasantry Status : The peasant was the basis of the social order. Leading peasants (Satkams) were regarded as Sat-Sudras, claiming ritual purity and respectable secular rank.

II. Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527 AD)

Founder and Capital : Founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Original name: Hasan Gangu) in 1347 AD. Capital: Gulbarga (named Ahsanabad), later shifted to Bidar (by Ahmad Shah Wali).

Administration : Divided into four Tarafs (provinces). Mohammed Shah I appointed a formal Council of 8 Ministers (including Vakil-us-Saltana and Amir-i-Jumla).

Firoz Shah (1397–1422) : A polyglot (Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Persian, Arabic, Turkish). Encouraged astronomy and built an observatory. Inducted many Hindus into the administration.

III. Zenith and Collapse (Mahmud Gawan)

Mahmud Gawan (Minister) : Served as minister and guardian, under whom the Bahmani kingdom reached its height of power. He held the title Malik-ul-Tujjar.

Military Innovation : Introduced the use of gunpowder in wars against Vijayanagar (e.g., in Belgaum) and invited Persian chemists for training.

Cultural Contribution : Built a famous college at Bidar in Persian style.

Collapse : Gawan was executed in 1482 due to court conspiracy. The Sultanate rapidly disintegrated into Five Deccan Sultanates after 1518 (Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, and Bidar).

I. Causes of Decline of Bahmanis

Role of Nobility : Succession was often based on heredity, but the powerful nobles (Amirs) exercised considerable power, acting as kingmakers and causing instability.

Internal Factionalism : The fatal division between Deccanis (local, often Sunni) and Afakis (foreign, Persian/Turkic, often Shia) led to perpetual court conspiracies (e.g., the execution of Mahmud Gawan).

External Conflict : Constant, exhausting clashes with the Vijayanagar Empire over the Tungabhadra doab, Krishna-Godavari deltas (trade), and Konkan (Goa) ports.

Political Expediency : The Sultans frequently changed alliances, engaging in hostilities against other Muslim states (Malwa, Gujarat) and even briefly joining hands with Hindu chiefs (Telingana) against Vijayanagar, which proved detrimental due to frequent military engagements.

II. The Five Deccan Sultanates (Successor States)

The execution of Mahmud Gawan (1482 AD) accelerated the collapse, leading to the formation of five independent kingdoms after 1518 AD.

Adil Shahis of Bijapur : Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Mohammad Adil Shah built the world's second largest dome, Gol Gumbaz. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was known as Jagadguru Budshah for his religious tolerance and wrote Kitab-E-Navras (on music). Annexed by Aurangzeb.

Qutub Shahis of Golconda : Founded by Quli Qutub Shah. Mohd. Quli Qutub Shah built the city of Hyderabad and Charminar. Annexed by Aurangzeb.

Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar : Founded by Ahmad Bahri. Annexed by Shah Jahan.

Imad Shahis of Berar : Founded by Fatullah Khan Imad-ul-Mulk. Conquered by Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar.

Barid Shahis of Bidar : Founded by Ali Barid. Annexed by Adil Shahis of Bijapur.

III. Foreign Account: Niccolò de' Conti

Traveler : Niccolò de' Conti was a Venetian merchant who visited India around 1420 AD.

Source : His book is entitled De Varietate Fortunae ('On the Vicissitudes of Fortune').

Observation : He visited the Vijayanagara kingdom (Bizenegalia) during the reign of Deva Raya II. He described the capital's lofty and massive stone walls, elaborate water channels for irrigation, rich crops, and Brahmanical colleges.

I. Niccolò de' Conti (Circa 1420 AD)

Traveler : A Venetian merchant who visited during the reign of Deva Raya I (Sangam Dynasty).

Linguistics : Coined the phrase 'Italian of the East' for the Telugu language due to its words ending with vowels.

Customs : Documented the prevalence of polygamy among nobles and the frequent practice of Sati (widow immolation), which was considered an honour.

Technology : Noted the established use of cannons in wars, indicating early adoption of artillery in the Deccan.

Trade/Slavery : Observed the prevalence of slavery, where slaves would be seized by creditors to settle debt. Noted that only Cambay used paper; the rest wrote on leaves of trees.

II. Domingo Paes (Circa 1520 AD)

Traveler : A Portuguese traveler who visited the court of Krishna Deva Raya (Tuluva Dynasty) and witnessed the Battle of Raichur (1520).

King and Polity : Confirmed Raya as an absolute sovereign, praised his strict daily discipline and military leadership (commanding armies in person).

Urban Prosperity : Famously claimed Vijayanagara was the 'best-provided city in the world', noting the abundance and cheapness of goods, comparing its size to Rome.

Irrigation : Detailed the complex network of canals, dams, and lakes that supported intensive agriculture, often built with the aid of Portuguese engineers.

III. Fernão Nunes (Circa 1535 AD)

Social Mobility : Nunes (whose memoirs often accompany Paes') documented the extensive employment of women in diverse and high-status public roles: wrestlers, astrologers, accountants, judges, and bodyguards in the royal palaces, highlighting unusual social liberalization.

Markets : Noted the immense quantity of diamonds, rubies, and pearls traded in the bustling city markets.

I. Key Features of the Vijayanagara Style

Hybrid Style: Vijayanagara architecture synthesizes motifs from Hoysala ornamentation (intricate reliefs), Chola layout (agamic plans) and Pandya/Chalukya sculptural vocabulary, but is distinctive for large-scale use of granite and monumental civic structures.

Pillared Mandapas: The Kalyana Mandapa (ceremonial marriage or congregation hall) is a hallmark — deep, pillared halls with horizontal beams, often added to older temple complexes. Pillars commonly bear yali (mythical beast) figures, erotic friezes, processional scenes and hunting panels.

Gopurams and Vimanas: While the inner sanctum towers (Vimanas) remained compact, the gateway towers (Gopurams) — especially in later Vijayanagara-influenced South India — grew taller and more ornate, acting as visual markers for temple precincts.

Secular Structures: The cityscape included fortified royal enclosures, administrative halls, bazaars, stepped tanks (pushkarni), public baths and military architecture — notable examples being the Lotus Mahal and the Elephant Stables in Hampi that illustrate both local and foreign influences.

II. Construction Techniques and Materials

Granite Work: Use of hard granite required specific sculptural techniques — large-scale carving, assembly of monolithic blocks and finely articulated reliefs. This made structures durable and able to survive episodes of conflict and collapse.

Assembly & Polychromy: Although much original painting and wooden superstructure is lost, traces indicate temples and palaces were originally polychromatic and used timber and metal fittings alongside stone.

III. Notable Examples (Hampi - UNESCO World Heritage Site)

Vittalaswami Temple: Associated with the rule of Krishna Deva Raya (early 16th century). The complex is famed for the Stone Chariot (a shrine sculpted to resemble a chariot) and the musical pillars — lathe-polished stone columns that emit distinct tones when tapped.

Hazara Ramaswamy Temple: A richly carved small temple with hundreds of narrative panels depicting episodes from the Ramayana, offering insight into courtly culture and iconographic programs.

Virupaksha Temple: The principal temple of Hampi, with continuous religious use from pre-Vijayanagara times; its expansive complex and nine-tiered eastern gopuram underline the political-religious centrality of the site.

Monolithic Sculptures: Large single-piece sculptures such as the monolithic Narasimha illustrate technical skill and royal patronage; sculptural programs include life-size figures of royalty, dancers and battle scenes.

IV. Socio-economic and Cultural Significance

Temples as Economic Hubs: Major temple complexes functioned as landowners, banks, employers and craft-centres. Donations, endowments and agricultural revenues sustained temple workshops and urban economies.

Patronage: Royal and elite patronage (Krishna Deva Raya, Virupaksha Raya, and provincial governors) drove large building campaigns. Temple architecture also reflected competition among local elites for prestige.

Cultural Exchange: Structural hybrids like the Lotus Mahal show pragmatic borrowing from Islamic forms (arches, domes) and local aesthetics, reflecting diplomatic, trade and military contact with Deccan Sultanates.

I. Factionalism: Deccanis vs Afakis

Deccanis (Oldcomers): Indigenous or long-settled Muslim elites, often of mixed Indian origin. They controlled provincial appointments and enjoyed local patronage networks that tied them to agrarian and urban elites.

Afakis/Pardesis (Newcomers): Migrant elites from Persia, Central Asia and the broader Islamic world. Afakis often brought administrative techniques, military skills and bureaucratic experience — prominent among them was Mahmud Gawan who rose from a foreign origin to become a powerful wazir.

Political Consequence: Persistent mistrust and rivalry between these factions produced palace intrigues, assassinations, and policy paralysis. This internal fragmentation weakened centralized authority and contributed to the eventual disintegration of the Bahmani polity into successor Deccan Sultanates (late 15th—early 16th century).

II. Administration, Religion and Social Policy

Hindu Officials: Brahmin accountants, village headmen and local revenue officers were often retained to collect land revenue and supervise agrarian affairs. Their involvement ensured continuity in agrarian management and local legitimacy.

Religious Tolerance & Dhimmi System: Non-Muslim subjects (primarily Hindus) were usually allowed to practice their religion, retain personal laws and serve in military and administrative roles — sometimes under a Dhimmi-like arrangement.

Cultural Patronage: Rulers like Firoz Shah patronized learning, astronomy and literature; later Bijapur rulers (Ibrahim Adil Shah II) furthered syncretic cultural trends, promoting Dakhani poetry and musical forms.

III. Language, Art and Urbanism

Language: Persian remained the court and administrative lingua franca, while Dakhani (an early form of Urdu incorporating Marathi, Telugu and Persian elements) developed as a regional literary and spoken idiom.

Architecture: Bahmani and successor Deccan Sultanate architecture combined Persianate elements (arches, domes) with local materials and horizontal planning; notable monuments include the Jama Masjid at Gulbarga and the Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar.

Urban Centers: Gulbarga, Bidar and later Hyderabad emerged as hubs of trade, craft production, and intellectual exchange — attracting merchants and scholars from the Islamic world and integrating Deccan economies into wider Eurasian networks.