Modern History Playlist
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1
Advent of Europeans in India
9 topics
2
Decline of the Mughal Empire
7 topics
3
Emergence of Regional States
11 topics
4
Expansion and Consolidation of British Power
19 topics
5
British Government & Economic Policies (1757–1857)
4 topics
6
Social Reform Movements
20 topics
7
People’s Resistance before 1857
3 topics
8
The revolt of 1857
6 topics
9
Growth of Nationalism and Moderate Phase of Congress
6 topics
10
British Administration in India
7 topics
11
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
5 topics
12
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
8 topics
13
India’s Response to First World War and Home Rule Movement
4 topics
14
Emergence of Gandhi
6 topics
15
Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
7 topics
16
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities
5 topics
17
Struggle For Swaraj: 1928-1935
13 topics
18
Period from 1935-42
9 topics
19
Period from 1942-47
22 topics
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Chapter 10: British Administration in India
Chapter Test7 topics•Estimated reading: 21 minutes
Background of British Administration in India
Key Point
British administration in India gradually evolved from trading company rule to a centralized colonial state, shaped by wars, treaties, and parliamentary control from Britain.
British administration in India gradually evolved from trading company rule to a centralized colonial state, shaped by wars, treaties, and parliamentary control from Britain.
Detailed Notes (10 points)
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1600: East India Company formed in England to trade with the East.
1757: Battle of Plassey marked the beginning of British political control in India.
1764: Battle of Buxar consolidated British power over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
1765: Treaty of Allahabad granted Diwani rights (revenue collection) in Bengal → Company became territorial power.
1773: Regulating Act brought the Company under Parliamentary supervision; Governor-General of Bengal created.
1784: Pitt’s India Act established dual control of Company and Parliament.
1793–1853: Charter Acts restructured administration, extended parliamentary oversight, and curtailed Company’s trade monopoly.
1833: Governor-General of India created (Lord William Bentinck first holder).
1853: Civil Services opened through competitive exams; foundation of modern bureaucracy.
1857: Revolt exposed weaknesses of Company rule, leading to direct Crown rule under Government of India Act (1858).
Fun Facts
After 1765, the East India Company became the 'Diwan' of Bengal — a trader turned ruler.
Governor-General Warren Hastings (1773) was the real architect of early British administration in India.
Mains Key Points
British administration in India transitioned from commercial to political control after 1757.
Parliamentary Acts (1773–1853) steadily increased Crown oversight over Company rule.
Administrative institutions (civil services, judiciary, army) laid the foundation for modern governance.
1857 Revolt revealed exploitative and weak structures, leading to direct Crown rule in 1858.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Battle of Plassey (1757) → start of political control.
Battle of Buxar (1764) → consolidated Company power.
1773 Regulating Act → first step of Parliamentary control.
1833 Charter Act → first Governor-General of India.
1858 Act → end of Company rule, Crown rule begins.
Civil Services
Key Point
Civil Services were the administrative backbone of British rule — a professional, hierarchical bureaucracy created to collect revenue, maintain law and order and implement colonial policy; its recruitment, training and slow 'Indianisation' shaped both colonial governance and post-colonial administrative legacies.
Civil Services were the administrative backbone of British rule — a professional, hierarchical bureaucracy created to collect revenue, maintain law and order and implement colonial policy; its recruitment, training and slow 'Indianisation' shaped both colonial governance and post-colonial administrative legacies.
Detailed Notes (10 points)
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Origins & Early Structure: From 17th century the Company employed 'factors' and a graded cadre (apprentice/writer → factor → junior merchant → senior merchant). These commercial servants gradually assumed administrative duties as Company possessions expanded after Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764).
Cornwallis Reforms (1786–93): Created a professional civil service; separated civil from military functions; introduced covenanted (higher, Europeans) and uncovenanted (lower, open to locals) divisions; prohibited private trade and gifts; emphasized regular pay and seniority-based promotion — earning Cornwallis the title 'Father of Civil Service in India'.
Charter Acts & Recruitment Reforms: 1793 Charter Act formalised rights and patronage rules; 1833 recommended limited competition; Charter Act 1853 introduced open competitive examinations (statutory provision) — first exam under Board of Control held in 1856 in London (first successful batch recruited thereafter).
Training & Institutions: Fort William College (Calcutta, 1800) produced administrative manuals and translations; Haileybury College (East India Company College, Hertfordshire) became the principal training institute for Company servants until its closure in 1857 after the transfer of power to the Crown.
Legislation & Acts: Indian Civil Service Act 1861 clarified appointments and allowed limited Indian entry; Statutory Civil Service (Lytton, 1879) attempted a quota for local recruitment (largely unsuccessful and later abandoned); Government of India Acts (1919, 1935) reorganised services and proposed Public Service Commissions.
Committees & Commissions: Aitchison classification (1886) re-organised services into Imperial/Provincial/Subordinate grades; Islington Commission (1912) recommended two entry channels and a proposal to reserve posts for Indians; Lee Commission (1923–24) proposed 50:50 parity target over 15 years and immediate Public Service Commission establishment.
Indianisation: A slow, contested process — structural barriers (exams in London, English syllabus, travel cost), social networks and selection biases preserved European dominance in senior posts well into the 20th century. By 1912 Indians still formed a small minority in senior cadres.
Functions & Role: District administration (collectors/magistrates), revenue assessment & collection, implementation of laws and public works, supervision of police and local institutions — functionaries exercised wide discretionary power in districts.
Problems & Critique: Eurocentric recruitment, elitism, language barrier, limited accountability to local populations, tendency to prioritize imperial objectives (revenue, order) over social welfare; early accusations of nepotism/private trade (addressed partly by Cornwallis).
Legacy: The civil services left institutional practices (cadre structure, rule-based administration, district collector system) that shaped independent India's bureaucracy — an ambivalent legacy combining efficiency with elitist exclusion.
Timeline & Key Acts (Civil Services)
| Year | Event / Act | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 1772–93 | Cornwallis Reforms | Professionalised service; covenanted/uncovenanted division; barred private trade; separation of revenue & justice (partly). |
| 1793 | Charter Act | Confirmed Company's civil rights; regulated appointments and age limits (writer age limit raised to 22). |
| 1800 | Fort William College (Calcutta) established | Produced administrative manuals, translations and language training for Company servants. |
| 1806–1813 | Haileybury (EIC College) established & statutory status (1813) | Principal training college in England for Company writers; training + exams required until 1857. |
| 1833 | Charter Act (1833) | Recommended limited competition and centralised administrative reforms; step toward Governor-General of India concept. |
| 1853 | Charter Act (1853) | Statutory provision for competitive examination for covenanted service — exam location initially London. |
| 1856 | First competitive examinations under Board of Control | First exam held (London) — candidates selected for covenanted posts. |
| 1861 | Indian Civil Service Act | Clarified appointments; allowed limited Indian entry and Devon-style district cadres after 1857 reorganisation. |
| 1879 | Statutory Civil Service experiment (Lytton) | Attempted local recruitment quotas — short-lived and largely unsuccessful. |
| 1886 | Aitchison Committee | Classified services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate categories; clarified roles. |
| 1912 | Islington Commission | Recommended two entry channels (England & India), proposed reserving posts/quotas for Indians (partial suggestions). |
| 1919 | Government of India Act (1919) | Categorised All-India, provincial and subordinate services; strengthened the idea of Public Service Commissions. |
| 1923–24 | Lee Commission | Recommended 50:50 parity target between Europeans and Indians within 15 years and immediate PSC establishment; sectoral recruitment changes. |
| 1935 | Government of India Act (1935) | Further safeguards for services; proposed Public Service Commissions for federation and provinces; service protections. |
Major Committees / Commissions & Recommendations
| Committee/Commission | Year | Key Recommendations / Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Committee headed by Lord Macaulay (on education & admin links) | 1835 | Macaulay's Minute influenced English education and indirectly the civil service by supplying English-educated clerks and lawyers; promoted English curriculum used in recruitment. |
| Committee on ICS (Macaulay / Board advice) | 1853–56 | Shaped competitive exam proposals; recommended training and standard for covenanted service; advisory to Board of Control and Secretary of State. |
| Aitchison Committee | 1886 | Reclassified services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate; clarified recruitment channels and career paths. |
| Islington Commission | 1912 | Proposed two entry channels (England & India), recommended reserving posts for Indians (quantum debated), suggested more training in India. |
| Lee Commission | 1923–24 | Recommended parity over 15 years, immediate establishment of Public Service Commission, retention of some Imperial recruitment by Secretary of State for technical branches. |
Fun Facts
Haileybury College (England) trained many Company servants; its closure in 1857 followed the transfer of power to the Crown.
Before the 1920s, the combination of London-location exams, travel costs and English-only papers made ICS entry virtually impossible for most Indians — early Indian ICS officers were almost exclusively anglicised elites.
Mains Key Points
Civil Services formed the backbone of colonial administration — efficient in revenue and law-and-order functions but institutionally designed to ensure European control and serve imperial interests.
Indianisation was gradual, contested and structurally impeded; commissions between 1886–1924 pushed reforms but full parity was not achieved pre-independence.
Colonial administrative structures (cadre system, rule-based procedures, district collector model) survived into independent India — both as institutional strengths and as reminders of an exclusionary past.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Father of Civil Services in India → Lord Cornwallis (reforms 1786–93).
ICS competitive exam introduced by Charter Act 1853 (first held 1856 in London).
Aitchison (1886) = reclassification (Imperial/Provincial/Subordinate); Islington (1912) & Lee (1923–24) focused on Indianisation/parity and PSCs.
Police
Key Point
The British created a structured police system through the 1791 Cornwallis reforms and the 1861 Police Act, designed to protect colonial rule rather than public rights.
The British created a structured police system through the 1791 Cornwallis reforms and the 1861 Police Act, designed to protect colonial rule rather than public rights.
Detailed Notes (7 points)
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Pre-British policing was decentralised: zamindars, kotwals, faujdars, and village watchmen maintained order.
Cornwallis (1791) established regular police units, modernised thanas under darogas, and introduced Superintendent of Police (SP) as district head.
Bentinck (1828–35) abolished SP office; collectors acted as police heads. Later restored.
Police Act of 1861 (after 1857 Revolt) formalised police hierarchy: village chowkidars, district police under SP, provincial Inspector General, and Deputy IG at range level.
1902–03 Police Commission recommended creation of Criminal Investigation Department (CID) and Central Intelligence Bureau (CIB).
Police became tool of political surveillance, intelligence gathering, and suppression of dissent.
Criticism: corruption, arbitrary arrests, torture during interrogations, poor accountability, and focus on revenue/security over welfare.
Key Developments in British Police System
| Year | Event/Measure | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| 1791 | Cornwallis organised regular police and thana system | Modern policing structure under darogas |
| 1828–35 | Bentinck reforms | Collectors made police heads |
| 1861 | Indian Police Act | Created structured hierarchy (SP, IG, DIG, chowkidars) |
| 1902–03 | Police Commission | Recommended CID & CIB for intelligence |
| Post-1857 | Political policing focus | Suppression of dissent, surveillance of nationalists |
Fun Facts
Village chowkidars were paid by villagers, not by the government.
Early police often doubled as tax collectors during famines and revolts.
Mains Key Points
The colonial police prioritised regime security over public service, making it a tool of repression rather than protection.
The 1861 Police Act institutionalised a centralised, hierarchical police system that still shapes modern Indian policing.
Police became an essential arm of colonial surveillance, helping suppress nationalism and revolts.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Indian Police Act → 1861 (after Revolt of 1857).
Cornwallis (1791) started modern thana system under darogas.
CID and CIB were recommended by 1902 Police Commission.
Army
Key Point
The British Indian Army was the main pillar of colonial rule — used for conquest, suppression of revolts, and imperial wars abroad, but its recruitment and policies sowed seeds of discontent like in 1857.
The British Indian Army was the main pillar of colonial rule — used for conquest, suppression of revolts, and imperial wars abroad, but its recruitment and policies sowed seeds of discontent like in 1857.
Detailed Notes (7 points)
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Early phase: Company relied on mercenary forces and leased royal troops; later created a permanent standing army of sepoys under British officers.
Recruitment: Initially from local agricultural classes; later shifted to 'martial races' (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Punjabi Muslims, Pathans) after 1857.
Organisation: Separate European and native regiments; artillery almost exclusively European after 1857; Indian sepoys commanded by British officers.
General Services Enlistment Act (1856): Made overseas service mandatory for sepoys, clashing with caste traditions — one cause of 1857 Revolt.
Functions: Expansion of British territories, frontier defence, internal suppression of revolts, collection of intelligence, and service abroad (Sudan, China, South Africa).
Post-1857 reforms: European:Indian ratio maintained at 2:1; recruitment favoured loyal communities; artillery, arms, and higher commands restricted to Europeans.
Impact: Army became both a protector of British empire and a source of resentment among Indians due to discrimination, cultural insensitivities, and unequal privileges.
Fun Facts
Before 1857, sepoys were sometimes allowed leave to attend village festivals and agricultural duties.
Indian regiments fought not only in India but also in distant wars like Boxer Rebellion (China, 1900).
Mains Key Points
The army was the most crucial pillar of British imperial control in India, combining conquest, suppression, and external service.
1857 exposed contradictions in recruitment and cultural insensitivity, forcing major reorganisation.
The 'martial races' policy institutionalised community-based recruitment patterns with long-term political effects.
Prelims Strategy Tips
General Services Enlistment Act (1856) was a direct cause of sepoy discontent before 1857.
Post-1857, recruitment favoured Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Punjabi Muslims.
Artillery remained almost entirely under European control.
Judiciary
Key Point
The British introduced a structured judiciary in India with codified laws, graded courts, and the principle of rule of law, but it remained costly, inaccessible, and biased towards colonial interests.
The British introduced a structured judiciary in India with codified laws, graded courts, and the principle of rule of law, but it remained costly, inaccessible, and biased towards colonial interests.
Detailed Notes (8 points)
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Early foundations: Company received judicial powers via charters (1662, 1726); Mayor’s Courts established in presidency towns.
Warren Hastings (1772): Set up district civil (Diwani) and criminal (Faujdari) courts; applied Hindu law for Hindus, Muslim law for Muslims.
Regulating Act (1773): Established Supreme Court at Calcutta with wide jurisdiction over Europeans and Indians.
Cornwallis Reforms (1786–93): Created Circuit Courts, separated revenue from justice, introduced principle of rule of law.
Codification: Macaulay’s Law Commission (1833) drafted IPC (1860), CrPC (1861), Civil Procedure Code (1859).
Bentinck (1828–33): Abolished Circuit Courts, shifted functions to collectors; English made official language for higher courts.
Post-1857 reforms: High Courts Act (1861, effective 1865) merged Supreme Courts & Sadar Adalats; Government of India Act 1935 established Federal Court.
Critique: Judicial system expensive, slow, complex; European judges unfamiliar with Indian customs; access limited to elites.
Fun Facts
Macaulay’s codification introduced English legal ideas but retained Hindu and Muslim personal laws.
Early courts often had language issues — proceedings in Persian, local vernaculars, and later English.
Mains Key Points
The British judiciary institutionalised rule of law and codified laws, creating uniformity across India.
Yet, it remained elitist and inaccessible to the masses — favouring colonial interests.
It became both an instrument of control and a lasting institutional legacy for modern India’s legal system.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Regulating Act (1773) → Supreme Court at Calcutta.
Cornwallis Code (1793) → separation of revenue and justice.
Macaulay’s Law Commission → IPC (1860), CrPC (1861), CPC (1859).
High Courts Act (1861) merged Supreme Courts and Sadar Adalats.
Modern Education
Key Point
The British introduced modern education in India to serve administrative needs, spread western knowledge, and create a loyal class, but it also produced a politically conscious middle class that spearheaded the nationalist movement.
The British introduced modern education in India to serve administrative needs, spread western knowledge, and create a loyal class, but it also produced a politically conscious middle class that spearheaded the nationalist movement.
Detailed Notes (7 points)
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Early initiatives: Warren Hastings set up Calcutta Madrassa (1781) for Muslim law; Jonathan Duncan established Sanskrit College at Varanasi (1791).
Charter Act 1813: First official step — earmarked ₹1 lakh annually for education (though delayed till 1823).
Macaulay’s Minute (1835): Advocated English medium and western sciences; promoted creation of 'a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions, morals and intellect'.
Introduction of English schools and colleges in Bengal — focus shifted from oriental learning to western knowledge.
Wood’s Dispatch (1854): Considered Magna Carta of English Education in India; recommended universities at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (est. 1857), department of public instruction, teacher training, grants-in-aid, emphasis on women’s education.
Post-1857 developments: Universities in Presidency towns, professional institutions (law, medicine, engineering), expansion of missionary schools.
Impact: Created English-educated elite; spread rationalist and nationalist ideas; but neglected mass, technical, and rural education; emphasis on 'downward filtration' (educating few to trickle down knowledge).
Fun Facts
The first graduates from Calcutta University passed in 1858.
English became a passport for government jobs after 1844 notification.
Macaulay openly dismissed oriental learning as 'worthless'.
Mains Key Points
Modern education created an English-educated Indian middle class which became the backbone of reform movements and nationalism.
It fostered rationalism, liberalism, and modern political ideas but was elitist and left masses untouched.
Dual nature: tool of colonial control but also instrument of Indian awakening.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Wood’s Dispatch (1854) → Magna Carta of English Education.
Macaulay’s Minute (1835) → English medium & western sciences.
First universities: Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857).
Transport & Communication
Key Point
The British developed transport and communication networks to serve colonial interests — enabling troop movement, revenue collection, and integration of Indian markets with Britain, though these changes had long-term developmental impacts on India.
The British developed transport and communication networks to serve colonial interests — enabling troop movement, revenue collection, and integration of Indian markets with Britain, though these changes had long-term developmental impacts on India.
Detailed Notes (7 points)
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Background: Pre-colonial India relied on bullock carts, boats, pack animals; transport was local and village-based with minimal long-distance connectivity.
Railways: Introduced in 1853 (Bombay–Thane). Expanded to link ports, raw material producing regions, and administrative centers. By 1900, India had over 25,000 km of rail lines.
Roads: Military roads built by British; Grand Trunk Road modernised; focus on strategic and commercial purposes, not rural needs.
Canals: Projects like Ganges Canal (1854) aided irrigation and also troop movement; canal colonies in Punjab expanded agriculture.
Postal System: Reformed by Lord Dalhousie; penny/half-anna postage introduced; standardized stamps allowed easy communication across India.
Telegraph: Introduced mid-19th century (Dalhousie era). By 1854, Calcutta–Agra–Bombay–Madras linked. Played crucial role during 1857 revolt in helping British coordinate.
Impact: Helped commercialize agriculture, integrate Indian markets, enable famine relief (though sometimes worsening shortages by exporting food). Primarily served British strategic and economic goals.
Fun Facts
The first train in India carried about 400 passengers in 14 coaches.
The half-anna postage stamp made postal communication affordable to common Indians.
Telegraph wires were often targeted during the 1857 Revolt by rebels to disrupt British communication.
Mains Key Points
Transport & communication served colonial needs but created enduring infrastructure that shaped India’s economic and political integration.
Railways accelerated commercialization of agriculture and integration of markets but also deepened India’s economic dependency on Britain.
Telegraphs and postal systems enhanced administrative efficiency and facilitated colonial control.
Prelims Strategy Tips
First railway line → Bombay to Thane (1853).
First telegraph line → Calcutta to Agra (1851–54).
Dalhousie credited with modern postal and telegraph reforms.
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