Modern History Playlist
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1
Advent of Europeans in India
10 topics
2
Decline of the Mughal Empire
7 topics
3
Emergence of Regional States
11 topics
4
Expansion and Consolidation of British Power
23 topics
5
British Government & Economic Policies (1757-1857)
7 topics
6
Social Reform Movements
24 topics
7
People’s Resistance before 1857
13 topics
8
The revolt of 1857
7 topics
9
Growth of Nationalism and Moderate Phase of Congress
9 topics
10
British Administration in India
9 topics
11
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
6 topics
12
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
8 topics
13
India’s Response to First World War and Home Rule Movement
5 topics
14
Emergence of Gandhi
10 topics
15
Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
10 topics
16
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities
8 topics
17
Struggle For Swaraj: 1928-1935
16 topics
18
Period from 1935-42
12 topics
19
Period from 1942-47
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Chapter 18: Period from 1935-42
Chapter Test12 topics•Estimated reading: 36 minutes
Period from 1935–42: Ideological Debates and the 'Struggle–Truce–Struggle' Cycle
Key Point
The period from 1935–42 was characterized by continuous strategic debate within the Congress about the Government of India Act, 1935. This oscillation between constitutional engagement (1937–39 ministries) and mass confrontation (1942 Quit India) is historically known as the 'struggle–truce–struggle' cycle, defining the final phase of nationalist preparation.
The period from 1935–42 was characterized by continuous strategic debate within the Congress about the Government of India Act, 1935. This oscillation between constitutional engagement (1937–39 ministries) and mass confrontation (1942 Quit India) is historically known as the 'struggle–truce–struggle' cycle, defining the final phase of nationalist preparation.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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I. First Stage Debate (1935–37): To Enter or Not to Enter?
The Core Question: Whether to participate in the provincial elections mandated by the Government of India Act, 1935, which was rejected as 'a charter of slavery'.
Factions: Ideological Radicals (Nehru, Bose) opposed participation, viewing councils as a trap. Pragmatists/Conservatives (Gandhi, Patel, Rajendra Prasad) supported contesting elections as a tactical step.
Strategic Rationale: The pragmatists argued that provincial power would serve as a powerful 'platform for mass mobilization', expose the Act's flaws, and allow for constructive reforms.
Outcome: Congress decided to contest the 1937 provincial elections.
II. Second Stage Debate (1937–39): The Experiment with Power (Truce Phase):
Congress Ministries: Congress swept the 1937 elections, forming ministries in 7 provinces (later 8). This period (1937–39) served as a strategic 'truce'.
Progressive Reforms: Ministries introduced progressive reforms such as the abolition of untouchability, expansion of education, and pro-peasant tenancy rights legislation, utilizing limited power effectively.
Internal Conflict (Tripuri Crisis, 1939): Ideological differences resurfaced. The Radical Left (Bose, Nehru) advocated using power more aggressively for mass mobilization. The conflict led to Subhas Bose’s resignation as Congress President in 1939.
III. Struggle–Truce–Struggle (1939–42): The Final Countdown:
The New Struggle (1939): World War II began; the British unilaterally involved India without consultation. Congress Ministries resigned in protest (October 1939), reaffirming the nationalist commitment to Purna Swaraj.
Strategic Truce (1939–40): Congress demanded a declaration of war aims and a promise of independence (denied). The British offered the inadequate August Offer (1940).
The Final Struggle (1940–42): The failure of the Cripps Mission (1942) and continued British intransigence convinced Congress that negotiation was futile, leading directly to the launch of the Quit India Movement (1942).
Cycle Description: The period reflects the strategic oscillation: Struggle (CDM/rejection of 1935 Act) – Truce (1937–39 ministries) – Struggle (1939–42 leading to Quit India).
Congress Strategy, 1935–42
| Phase | Years | Strategy | Analytical Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| First Stage Debate | 1935–37 | Decision to contest elections (Tactical Entry) | Demonstrated political pragmatism and willingness to use colonial structures. |
| Second Stage (Truce) | 1937–39 | Congress Ministries formed; Progressive Reforms introduced. | Proved Indian capacity to govern and provided a platform for mass contact. |
| Final Struggle | 1939–42 | Ministries resigned (1939); demand for war aims; led to Quit India Movement. | Reaffirmed commitment to Purna Swaraj over collaboration during a global crisis. |
Fun Facts
The 1937 elections under the 1935 Act were the first time Congress exercised real administrative power at the provincial level.
Subhas Bose defeated Gandhi’s candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya in the 1939 Congress presidential elections.
The resignation of Congress ministries in 1939 was celebrated as 'Day of Deliverance' by the Muslim League.
Mains Key Points
Pragmatism vs. Ideology: The period highlighted the deep ideological division between the radical socialists (Nehru/Bose) advocating confrontation and the pragmatic conservatives (Patel/Rajendra Prasad) advocating tactical engagement.
Proving Capacity: The 1937–39 ministries were crucial for the nationalist movement, as they proved Indian capacity to govern and implemented pro-people reforms (tenancy, education) that strengthened the bond between the Congress and the masses.
Resignation as Assertion: The 1939 resignations were a major political assertion, reaffirming that the Congress viewed its primary goal as Purna Swaraj over collaboration with the British in a war without Indian consent.
The Cycle's Role: The entire 'Struggle–Truce–Struggle' cycle was a necessary phase of political training and consolidation that prepared the Congress and the Indian people for the final, non-constitutional confrontation of the Quit India Movement (1942).
Prelims Strategy Tips
Congress won 1937 provincial elections and formed ministries in 7 provinces (later 8).
Tripuri Crisis (1939) → Subhas Bose resigned as Congress President.
Congress ministries resigned in 1939 when India was dragged into World War II.
The period is analytically described as the 'Struggle–Truce–Struggle' cycle.
1937 Elections and Formation of Congress Ministries
Key Point
The 1937 Provincial Elections , held under the Government of India Act, 1935, marked the first large-scale electoral test for Indian nationalists. The Congress contested on a strong anti-colonial manifesto and emerged with a sweeping victory, forming ministries in seven provinces by July 1937, thereby demonstrating Indian capacity for self-governance.
The 1937 Provincial Elections , held under the Government of India Act, 1935, marked the first large-scale electoral test for Indian nationalists. The Congress contested on a strong anti-colonial manifesto and emerged with a sweeping victory, forming ministries in seven provinces by July 1937, thereby demonstrating Indian capacity for self-governance.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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I. Ideological Stance and Electoral Performance:
Congress Manifesto (1936): Congress maintained a dual stance: formally opposing the Government of India Act, 1935, but deciding to contest elections tactically. The manifesto focused on pro-people issues like reduction of land revenue/rent, labour welfare, and the abolition of untouchability.
Electoral Performance: Congress won 715 seats, securing an absolute majority in 6 provinces (Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa). They formed ministries in 7 provinces (including NWFP).
Muslim League Failure: The Muslim League performed poorly, winning only 108 out of 485 Muslim seats (less than 25%). This failure later fueled the League's push for aggressive communal politics.
II. Formation and Administrative Achievements (The Truce Phase):
Initial Hesitation: Congress initially hesitated to form ministries due to the Governor’s overriding discretionary powers (a flaw in the 1935 Act). Ministries were formed in July 1937 only after assurances from the Viceroy.
Progressive Reforms: The ministries utilized their limited powers effectively (1937–39):
- Agrarian Relief: Introduced tenancy rights and passed legislation for reduction of land revenue/rent.
- Social Reform: Active campaigns for removal of untouchability, introduction of prohibition of liquor (Madras), and expansion of mass education.
Strategic Outcome: This period demonstrated the administrative capability of Indian leaders and strengthened the bond between the Congress and the rural masses.
III. Long-Term Political Impact:
Legitimization and Disillusionment: The elections effectively legitimized the 1935 Act but also increased the political stake. Congress's refusal to form coalition ministries in UP with the Muslim League was later used by the League as proof of Congress's majoritarianism.
Muslim League Reorganization: The League's poor showing forced it to embark on a campaign of mass reorganization and consolidation, accelerating its shift toward aggressive communal politics.
Resignation as Assertion (1939): The ministries resigned in October 1939 in protest against the British decision to unilaterally drag India into World War II. This was a powerful assertion of nationalist commitment to independence over collaboration.
Congress Performance in 1937 Elections
| Province | Result | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute Majority | Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa (6) | Proved pan-Indian acceptance of Congress. |
| Largest Party | NWFP, Assam | Ministries formed in 7 provinces (including NWFP). |
| Muslim League | Won 108/485 Muslim seats | Showed League's weak base among Muslim masses pre-1937. |
Fun Facts
The resignation of Congress ministries in 1939 was celebrated as 'Day of Deliverance' by the Muslim League.
C. Rajagopalachari introduced prohibition of liquor in Madras Presidency.
The ministries lasted for 28 months (July 1937 to October 1939).
Mains Key Points
Strategic Success: The elections validated the Congress's tactical entry strategy, allowing them to use limited constitutional power as a platform for mass mobilization (Constructive Programme).
Proving Capacity: The 1937–39 ministries were crucial for the nationalist movement, as they proved Indian capacity to govern and implemented pro-people reforms (tenancy, education) that strengthened the bond between the Congress and the masses.
Catalyst for Communalism: The Muslim League's electoral failure and subsequent exclusion from power in UP fueled its narrative of Congress majoritarianism, accelerating its shift toward the Pakistan demand.
Assertion against Colonial War: The 1939 resignation was a powerful political assertion, reaffirming that the Congress viewed its primary goal as Purna Swaraj over collaboration with the British in a war without Indian consent.
Prelims Strategy Tips
1937 elections held under Government of India Act, 1935.
Congress won absolute majority in 6 provinces, ministries in 7.
Muslim League performed poorly.
Congress ministries formed in July 1937 after initial hesitation.
Work Under Congress Ministries (1937–1939): The Experiment with Power
Key Point
The Congress Ministries (1937–1939), formed in seven provinces, introduced significant reforms in agrarian relief, labor welfare, and social justice. Despite the limitations imposed by the Governor’s overriding powers (under the 1935 Act), they successfully demonstrated Indian administrative capability and strengthened people’s faith in Congress as a governing body.
The Congress Ministries (1937–1939), formed in seven provinces, introduced significant reforms in agrarian relief, labor welfare, and social justice. Despite the limitations imposed by the Governor’s overriding powers (under the 1935 Act), they successfully demonstrated Indian administrative capability and strengthened people’s faith in Congress as a governing body.
Detailed Notes (11 points)
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I. Progressive Reforms and Social Justice:
Agrarian Reforms: Ministries introduced legislation for tenancy rights and protection of peasants from eviction (e.g., in UP and Bihar). Measures were taken for debt relief.
Labor Reforms: Implemented legislation for regulated working hours, improved working conditions, and introduced minimum wage laws in some provinces. They encouraged the recognition of trade unions.
Social Reforms: Active campaigns against untouchability were launched, leading to temple entry in several provinces. Welfare programs were initiated for Harijans and backward classes, and women’s participation was promoted.
Education and Public Health: Efforts focused on expanding primary and secondary education, with some provinces introducing free and compulsory primary education. Prohibition of liquor was notably introduced in parts of Madras (by C. Rajagopalachari).
Political and Civil Liberties: Ministries ordered the release of many political prisoners (except those involved in serious violence) and relaxed press restrictions.
II. Constraints and Analytical Significance:
Imperial Constraint (Veto Power): Governors retained veto and overriding powers under the 1935 Act, ensuring imperial control over crucial areas like law and order.
Financial Constraint: Ministries were limited by financial constraints (major revenue powers remained central), restricting the scope and scale of radical reforms.
Political Division: Congress's refusal to form coalition ministries in UP with the Muslim League was later exploited by the League as proof of Congress's majoritarianism.
Resignation as Assertion: The resignation of ministries in 1939 in protest against India’s unilateral entry into WWII was a powerful assertion of nationalist commitment to independence over collaboration.
Key Reforms by Congress Ministries (1937–39)
| Sector | Reforms | Mains Relevance |
|---|---|---|
| Agriculture | Rent reduction, tenancy protection, and debt relief laws. | Challenged the Taluqdari/Zamindari system; strengthened peasant base. |
| Labor | Recognition of trade unions, regulation of working hours, minimum wage laws. | Showed pro-worker bias and aligned with nationalist labor agenda. |
| Social | Campaigns against untouchability; temple entry allowed. | Implemented the Gandhian Constructive Programme. |
| Civil Liberties | Political prisoners released, press restrictions relaxed. | Demonstrated commitment to democratic norms and rule of law. |
| Constraint | Governor’s Veto Power, Financial limitations | Exposed the hollowness of the 1935 Act's Autonomy. |
Fun Facts
The resignation of Congress ministries in 1939 was celebrated as 'Day of Deliverance' by the Muslim League.
The ministries gave Congress practical experience in running governance before independence.
In UP, Govind Ballabh Pant pushed strong tenancy reforms, winning peasant support.
Mains Key Points
Proving Capacity: The 1937–39 ministries were crucial for the nationalist movement, as they proved Indian capacity to govern responsibly and implemented pro-people reforms (tenancy, education).
Catalyst for Communalism: The Muslim League's electoral failure and subsequent exclusion from power fueled its narrative of Congress majoritarianism, accelerating its shift toward the Pakistan demand.
Assertion against Colonial War: The 1939 resignation was a powerful political assertion, reaffirming that the Congress viewed its primary goal as Purna Swaraj over collaboration with the British in a war without Indian consent.
Dual Strategy: The period validated the dual political strategy—using the official administration to deliver reforms while maintaining the organization's readiness for the ultimate mass confrontation.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Congress ministries formed in July 1937 in 7 provinces (later 8).
C. Rajagopalachari introduced prohibition of liquor in Madras Presidency.
The ministries lasted for 28 months (until resignation in Oct 1939).
The resignation was in protest against India’s unilateral involvement in WWII.
Nationalist Response in the Wake of World War II (1939–1942)
Key Point
The outbreak of World War II (1939) exposed deep divisions within Indian nationalism. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized moral, non-violent opposition and demanded independence before cooperation, while Subhas Chandra Bose advocated militant struggle and sought to use the war to launch an armed revolt (INA) with international support.
The outbreak of World War II (1939) exposed deep divisions within Indian nationalism. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized moral, non-violent opposition and demanded independence before cooperation, while Subhas Chandra Bose advocated militant struggle and sought to use the war to launch an armed revolt (INA) with international support.
Detailed Notes (13 points)
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I. The Crisis of Consultation and Congress Resignation:
Unilateral Inclusion: On 3 September 1939, Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war without consulting Indian leaders, which was seen by the INC as a profound insult to Indian sovereignty.
Congress Demands: Congress demanded a declaration of British war aims and a promise of immediate independence after the war.
Resignation of Ministries: When the British denied this, the Congress ministries resigned from 7 provinces (later 8) in October 1939, reaffirming the nationalist commitment to Purna Swaraj over collaboration.
Muslim League Opportunism: The Muslim League supported the British war effort, celebrating the Congress resignations as 'Day of Deliverance,' utilizing the political vacuum to strengthen its communal demands.
II. Ideological Divergence: Gandhi vs. Bose:
Gandhi's Moral Path: Advocated non-violent resistance (Satyagraha). Launched 'Individual Satyagraha' (1940–41) to assert the right to free speech against the war and keep the organization active.
Bose's Militant Path: Considered the war a 'golden opportunity'. Resigned from Congress ( Tripuri Crisis, 1939 ), formed the Forward Bloc, and subsequently escaped in 1941 to organize the Indian National Army (INA) with Axis support.
Bose's Motto: 'Enemy’s enemy is our friend'—alliance with Germany, later Japan, to fight British rule.
III. Broader Nationalist Response and Legacy:
Strategic Dilemma: The Congress was politically and morally torn between opposing Fascism abroad and fighting Imperialism at home. The resignation confirmed the priority of the anti-imperialist struggle.
Individual Satyagraha (1940–41): This movement, led by Vinoba Bhave and Jawaharlal Nehru, was a symbolic protest designed to assert the right to dissent and prevent a premature, disorganized mass revolt.
Legacy: The period's unwavering stance against collaboration led directly to the rejection of the inadequate Cripps Mission (1942) and the launch of the final confrontation—the Quit India Movement (1942).
Contrasting Views: Gandhi vs. Bose during WWII
| Leader | Strategy | Approach to WWII | Mains Relevance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gandhi | Non-violent satyagraha, Individual Satyagraha | Support Britain only if independence promised (Moral Stance) | Prioritized moral high ground and long-term organizational discipline. |
| Subhas Bose | Militant struggle, Armed Revolt (INA) | Use war to ally with Axis powers to defeat Britain (Opportunistic Stance) | Advocated militant opportunism; created the first army of liberation abroad. |
Fun Facts
Bose escaped from house arrest in Calcutta in 1941 disguised as a Pathan before reaching Germany.
Gandhi initially described WWII as a 'clash between imperialists' but still sought India’s moral stance.
The Congress’s refusal to form ministries led to Governor’s rule in the provinces from 1939 until 1946.
Mains Key Points
Strategic Resignation: The 1939 resignations were a powerful political assertion, reaffirming that the Congress prioritized Purna Swaraj over collaboration with the British in an imperial war.
Ideological Divide: The period highlighted the critical ideological rift between the moral methodology of Gandhi (non-violence) and the militant opportunism of Bose (militarism), both aiming for Swaraj but via opposing means.
Bose’s Internationalization: Bose’s actions led to the internationalization of the struggle, providing an alternative, potentially faster, path to independence through external armed support.
Path to Quit India: The failure of the British to concede to the limited demands of Individual Satyagraha and the subsequent Cripps Mission confirmed that the only viable option was a final, all-out confrontation.
Prelims Strategy Tips
1939 : Congress ministries resigned after WWII declaration.
Individual Satyagraha (1940–41) was the initial response, led by Vinoba Bhave (first) and Jawaharlal Nehru (second).
Bose formed the Forward Bloc (1939) and the INA with Axis support.
Muslim League celebrated the resignations as 'Day of Deliverance'.
Haripura Session of Congress (1938) and Tripuri Crisis (1939): The Clash of Ideology and Authority
Key Point
The Haripura Session (1938) and the subsequent Tripuri Crisis (1939) represent a pivotal internal struggle between the radical Left (led by Subhas Chandra Bose) and the pragmatic conservative wing (loyal to Mahatma Gandhi). This conflict confirmed Gandhian organizational dominance and determined the strategic path Congress would adopt in the lead-up to World War II.
The Haripura Session (1938) and the subsequent Tripuri Crisis (1939) represent a pivotal internal struggle between the radical Left (led by Subhas Chandra Bose) and the pragmatic conservative wing (loyal to Mahatma Gandhi). This conflict confirmed Gandhian organizational dominance and determined the strategic path Congress would adopt in the lead-up to World War II.
Detailed Notes (15 points)
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I. Haripura Session (1938): The Socialist Agenda:
Venue and Leadership: Held in Haripura, Gujarat; presided over by Subhas Chandra Bose.
Progressive Economic Vision: Bose emphasized socialist ideals, large-scale industrialization, and strong central planning for India’s economic reconstruction.
National Planning Committee (NPC): The session resulted in the formation of the National Planning Committee (NPC) under Jawaharlal Nehru's chairmanship, embedding the principle of state-led economic planning within the Congress.
Call to Action: Bose advocated for strengthening Congress organization and preparing for an immediate mass struggle against the British.
II. The Tripuri Crisis (1939): Organizational Supremacy:
The Conflict: The crisis occurred at the Tripuri Session near Jabalpur when Bose stood for re-election as Congress President against Gandhi’s supported candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
Bose's Victory and Resignation: Despite Gandhi’s public disapproval, Bose was re-elected (1939).
Organizational Dominance: Following the election, the Gandhian leaders (Patel, Prasad) refused to cooperate, making it impossible for Bose to form a working Congress Working Committee (CWC). Bose was ultimately forced to resign.
Bose's Exit: After his resignation, Bose formed the Forward Bloc (1939) to consolidate the radical, left-wing forces within Congress and pursue an independent path of confrontation.
III. Significance and Legacy for UPSC Mains:
Gandhi's Supremacy: The crisis confirmed Mahatma Gandhi’s undisputed organizational dominance over the Congress structure; even a democratically elected president could not function without his support.
Limits of Radicalism: The event highlighted the limits of radicalism within the Congress; the party was unwilling to risk an immediate confrontation that would destabilize the organizational base.
Ideological Divergence: Bose's forced exit created a permanent ideological split in the nationalist movement, separating the moral, non-violent strategy (Gandhi) from the militant, opportunistic strategy (Bose/INA).
Economic Blueprint: The Haripura Session left a lasting progressive legacy by officially adopting the concept of state planning (NPC), which became the economic blueprint for independent India.
Haripura vs. Tripuri Sessions of Congress
| Session | Year | Leader | Key Policy/Event | Analytical Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Haripura | 1938 | Subhas Chandra Bose | Proposal for National Planning Committee (NPC); Socialist emphasis. | Introduced the economic blueprint for independent India. |
| Tripuri | 1939 | Subhas Chandra Bose (re-elected) | Bose resigned due to CWC opposition; formed Forward Bloc. | Confirmed Gandhian organizational dominance; exposed limits of radicalism. |
Fun Facts
At Haripura, the session pandal was designed like a village hut, emphasizing Congress's rural connections.
Gandhi publicly called Bose's re-election in 1939 his 'personal defeat'.
Bose’s Forward Bloc later became a platform for radical nationalists and leftists.
Mains Key Points
Gandhi's Organizational Supremacy: The crisis confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi held undisputed organizational dominance over the Congress structure, proving his moral authority was essential for party functioning.
Limits of Radicalism: The event highlighted the limits of radicalism within the Congress; the party was unwilling to risk an immediate confrontation (Bose's view) that might destabilize the organizational base just before WWII.
Ideological Divergence: Bose's exit created a permanent ideological split in the nationalist movement, separating the moral, non-violent strategy from the militant, opportunistic strategy (leading to the INA).
Economic Blueprint: The Haripura Session was crucial for officially adopting the concept of state planning (NPC), which became the foundational economic ideology of independent India.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Haripura Session (1938) → Bose as President, led to the formation of the National Planning Committee (NPC).
Tripuri Crisis (1939) → Bose re-elected against Gandhi’s wishes (who supported Pattabhi Sitaramayya).
Forward Bloc founded by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1939 after his resignation.
Bose’s Resignation, Post-Tripuri Developments, and INC’s Stand on World War II
Key Point
The period was defined by the ideological fracture between Mahatma Gandhi's moral non-violence and Subhas Chandra Bose's militant opportunism. Bose’s resignation ( April 1939 ) confirmed Gandhi’s organizational dominance. Simultaneously, the INC’s refusal to support WWII without a promise of independence led to the resignation of Congress ministries (October 1939), setting the stage for the final struggle.
The period was defined by the ideological fracture between Mahatma Gandhi's moral non-violence and Subhas Chandra Bose's militant opportunism. Bose’s resignation ( April 1939 ) confirmed Gandhi’s organizational dominance. Simultaneously, the INC’s refusal to support WWII without a promise of independence led to the resignation of Congress ministries (October 1939), setting the stage for the final struggle.
Detailed Notes (12 points)
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I. The Tripuri Crisis and Organizational Supremacy:
Bose’s Resignation (April 1939): After winning the presidential election, Subhas Chandra Bose was forced to resign due to the refusal of the Gandhian leaders (who controlled the CWC) to cooperate, confirming Gandhi’s organizational and moral dominance.
Forward Bloc (May 1939): Bose founded the Forward Bloc to consolidate the left-wing forces and pursue a radical, immediate confrontation policy.
Bose’s Final Path: Bose later escaped house arrest (1941) to seek an external militant strategy, leading to the formation of the Indian National Army (INA).
II. INC’s Stand on WWII and Strategic Resignation:
Unilateral Inclusion (1939): Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war without consulting Indian leaders, which the INC viewed as an insult to Indian sovereignty.
Congress Demand: The INC demanded a declaration of British war aims and a clear promise of full independence.
Resignation of Ministries (October 1939): When the British refused, the Congress ministries resigned from seven provinces (later eight). This was a powerful political assertion, reaffirming the commitment to Purna Swaraj over collaboration.
INC’s Limited Protest: Gandhi proposed the limited, symbolic 'Individual Satyagraha' (1940–41), led by Vinoba Bhave and Jawaharlal Nehru, to assert the right to free speech against the war.
III. Communal Opportunism and Legacy:
Muslim League’s Advantage: The Muslim League supported the British war effort, celebrating the Congress resignations as 'Day of Deliverance' (Dec 1939), and utilizing the political vacuum to strengthen its bargaining position.
Legacy: The period confirmed the final ideological split, leading directly to the rejection of the inadequate Cripps Mission (1942) and the launch of the final confrontation—the Quit India Movement (1942).
INC’s Response to World War II vs. Bose’s Approach
| Leader/Body | Approach | Strategic Rationale | Mains Relevance |
|---|---|---|---|
| INC Ministries (1939) | Resigned from ministries | Reaffirmed Purna Swaraj commitment; refused support without political control. | Demonstrated nationalist assertion over administrative benefits. |
| Gandhi (1940) | Non-violent opposition; Individual Satyagraha | Asserted right to dissent; kept mass base disciplined for a larger struggle. | Prioritized Ahimsa and long-term organizational discipline. |
| Subhas Bose (1941) | Advocated Axis Alliance (INA) | Used war as a military opportunity (Enemy’s enemy principle) for immediate liberation. | Highlighted the ideological rift between non-violence and militant opportunism. |
| Muslim League | Supported British war effort | Opportunistic strategy to gain concessions and consolidate power during the political vacuum. | Accelerated the Pakistan demand by utilizing Congress's political absence. |
Fun Facts
Bose escaped house arrest in Calcutta in 1941 disguised as a Pathan before reaching Germany.
Gandhi described WWII as a 'clash between imperialists' but still sought India’s moral stance.
The Congress’s refusal to form ministries led to Governor’s rule in the provinces from 1939 until 1946.
Mains Key Points
Strategic Resignation: The 1939 resignations were a powerful political assertion, reaffirming that the Congress prioritized Purna Swaraj over collaboration with the British in an imperial war.
Ideological Divide: The period highlighted the critical ideological rift between the moral methodology of Gandhi (non-violence) and the militant opportunism of Bose (militarism), both aiming for Swaraj but via opposing means.
Bose’s Internationalization: Bose’s actions led to the internationalization of the struggle, providing an alternative, potentially faster, path to independence through external armed support.
Path to Quit India: The failure of the British to concede to the limited demands of Individual Satyagraha and the subsequent Cripps Mission confirmed that the only viable option was a final, all-out confrontation.
Prelims Strategy Tips
1939 : Congress ministries resigned after WWII declaration.
Individual Satyagraha (1940–41) was the initial response, led by Vinoba Bhave (first) and Jawaharlal Nehru (second).
Bose formed the Forward Bloc (1939) and the INA with Axis support.
Muslim League celebrated the resignations as 'Day of Deliverance' (Dec 1939).
August Offer (1940) and Nationalist Response
Key Point
The August Offer , announced by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow on 8 August 1940 , was Britain’s attempt to secure Indian support in World War II. It promised post-war Dominion Status and council expansion. Congress rejected it as inadequate and delayed, confirming its demand for Purna Swaraj , while the Muslim League welcomed the minority veto clause.
The August Offer , announced by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow on 8 August 1940 , was Britain’s attempt to secure Indian support in World War II. It promised post-war Dominion Status and council expansion. Congress rejected it as inadequate and delayed, confirming its demand for Purna Swaraj , while the Muslim League welcomed the minority veto clause.
Detailed Notes (19 points)
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I. Main Provisions and Strategic Intent:
Background: WWII intensified by 1940; the British aimed to secure cooperation after the Congress ministries resigned in 1939.
Political Promise: Promise of Dominion Status for India *after* the war.
Administrative Expansion: Immediate Expansion of Viceroy’s Executive Council (though without Indian majority) and formation of a War Advisory Council.
The Minority Veto: Assurance that no new constitution would be framed without the consent of minorities. This strategically gave the Muslim League a veto power.
II. Nationalist Response and Analytical Critique:
## Congress:
– Rejected the offer as vague and inadequate; insistence on Purna Swaraj as the immediate goal.
– Gandhi: Called it 'a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank' (a phrase often misattributed to the Cripps Mission).
– The rejection terminated the political 'truce' and affirmed the anti-imperialist stand.
## Muslim League:
– Welcomed the offer as it explicitly recognized minorities' veto in constitutional matters.
– Saw it as the first official acknowledgment that the Congress did not represent all of India; strengthened its bargaining power.
## Other Groups:
– Liberals accepted the offer as a step forward, while Hindu Mahasabha supported the war effort.
III. Significance and Legacy:
Formal Recognition of Minority Consent: Marked the first official British acknowledgment that minority consent was essential for constitutional reform, greatly emboldening the Muslim League.
Deepened Congress–League Divide: The contrasting reactions cemented the political gap between the two major parties.
Path to Struggle: The rejection led directly to the launch of Gandhi’s Individual Satyagraha (October 1940) as a limited movement against British war policy and the assertion of the right to dissent.
August Offer 1940: Provisions and Reactions
| Aspect | Provision/Response | Analytical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Political Promise | Dominion Status after WWII | Rejected by Congress as inadequate; goal was Purna Swaraj. |
| Administrative | Expansion of Viceroy’s Executive Council | Limited concession; did not grant real power to Indians. |
| Minorities Clause | Assurance of veto in constitution making | Emboldened the Muslim League; institutionalized the communal barrier. |
| Congress Response | Rejected; Gandhi’s 'post-dated cheque' remark | Affirmed INC's shift to uncompromising Purna Swaraj. |
| Outcome | Triggered Individual Satyagraha (1940) | End of political truce; beginning of new phase of struggle. |
Fun Facts
August Offer was the first time Britain mentioned Dominion Status after the war, but India had already moved to demand full independence.
Muslim League saw the offer as a diplomatic win, calling it a recognition of 'Two-Nation Theory' indirectly.
The individual satyagraha was limited to ensure the movement did not degenerate into violence or mass chaos.
Mains Key Points
Strategic Deceit: The August Offer was Britain’s attempt to secure Indian cooperation during WWII by offering a delayed, conditional promise (Dominion Status) while refusing to grant real political control.
Uncompromising Nationalism: Congress’s rejection confirmed the INC's unwavering commitment to Purna Swaraj, demonstrating that the political goals were now absolute and non-negotiable.
Deepening Communalism: The minority veto clause was the Offer's most destructive provision, formally elevating the Muslim League’s importance and cementing the communal barrier in future constitutional talks.
Path to Resistance: The failure of the Offer set the stage for Gandhi’s Individual Satyagraha, shifting the nationalist stance from merely passive resistance to active, symbolic protest against the war effort.
Prelims Strategy Tips
August Offer announced on 8 August 1940 by Lord Linlithgow.
Promised Dominion Status after WWII; minorities’ consent essential for constitution.
Gandhi’s reaction: 'a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank'.
Congress rejected; Muslim League welcomed.
Individual Satyagraha (1940–41): Assertion of Moral Authority
Key Point
The Individual Satyagraha , launched by Mahatma Gandhi in October 1940 , was a highly controlled and symbolic form of protest. It followed the failure of the August Offer (1940) and was designed to affirm the moral authority and right to free speech of Indians against the unilateral involvement in World War II, all while preserving the Congress organization from outright repression.
The Individual Satyagraha , launched by Mahatma Gandhi in October 1940 , was a highly controlled and symbolic form of protest. It followed the failure of the August Offer (1940) and was designed to affirm the moral authority and right to free speech of Indians against the unilateral involvement in World War II, all while preserving the Congress organization from outright repression.
Detailed Notes (15 points)
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I. Objectives and Strategic Rationale:
Assertion of Rights: The primary objective was to affirm the right to free expression against the British war policy.
Symbolic Protest: Gandhi purposely rejected an immediate mass struggle, fearing it would either degenerate into violence or invite brutal, full-scale repression.
Keeping the Flame Alive: The movement was designed to keep the nationalist momentum alive during the wartime lull, maintaining mass contact and discipline until conditions were ripe for a decisive, centralized mass movement (Quit India).
Moral Stance: It demonstrated the commitment of the Congress to non-violence even in its opposition to the war.
II. Course and Features of the Movement:
Launch: The movement commenced on 17 October 1940.
First and Second Satyagrahis: First Satyagrahi: Acharya Vinoba Bhave. Second Satyagrahi: Jawaharlal Nehru.
Methodology: The protest was highly individualized and disciplined. Each satyagrahi would inform the magistrate, march to a designated village, make a public speech denouncing the war effort, and court arrest.
Scale of Arrests: Although symbolic, the movement gained momentum. By May 1941, approximately 25,000 satyagrahis—including almost all top Congress leaders—had been arrested.
Features: It was not a mass movement; focused on symbolic, disciplined, non-violent protest.
III. Outcome and Legacy for UPSC Mains:
Tactical Success: It allowed the Congress to demonstrate nationalist resistance and political initiative against the British without risking the organizational machinery.
Preparation for QIM: It served as a period of training and consolidation, preparing the populace and the cadre for the disciplined, large-scale civil disobedience required for the Quit India Movement (1942).
Moral Assertiveness: The movement unequivocally asserted India's right to freedom of speech and self-determination against the imperial hypocrisy of the British.
Key Facts: Individual Satyagraha (1940–41)
| Aspect | Details | Strategic Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Launch Date | 17 October 1940 | Followed the rejection of the August Offer. |
| First Satyagrahi | Acharya Vinoba Bhave | Emphasized the moral and ethical basis of the protest. |
| Second Satyagrahi | Jawaharlal Nehru | Confirmed the political nature and Congress's endorsement. |
| Method | Symbolic public speeches against war, courting arrest | Avoided full-scale repression while keeping momentum alive. |
| Arrests | Around 25,000 by May 1941 | Demonstrated the widespread political discontent. |
Fun Facts
Gandhi chose Vinoba Bhave as the first satyagrahi to emphasize moral purity over political stature.
The individual satyagraha was one of the smallest in scale but strategically vital in keeping the freedom struggle alive during WWII.
It was designed to avoid large-scale repression (unlike the NCM/CDM).
Mains Key Points
Strategic Necessity: Individual Satyagraha was a tactical necessity born from the constitutional impasse and the need to assert India's position without risking a premature, ill-prepared mass struggle.
Ahimsa and Discipline: The disciplined nature of the protest successfully reinforced the Gandhian methodology and Ahimsa as a viable political tool, demonstrating the Congress's commitment to non-violence before the global public.
Preparation for QIM: It served as a crucial period of training and consolidation, preparing the populace and the cadre for the disciplined, large-scale civil disobedience that would be required for the Quit India Movement (1942).
Moral Assertiveness: It was a moral protest against imperial hypocrisy, highlighting the contradiction of the British fighting for democratic freedoms while forcibly involving India without her consent.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Individual Satyagraha launched on 17 October 1940.
First Satyagrahi: Vinoba Bhave.
Second Satyagrahi: Jawaharlal Nehru.
It was a symbolic protest designed to assert the right to free speech against the war.
It led to the Quit India Movement (1942).
Cripps Mission (1942): Proposals, Response, and Failure
Key Point
The Cripps Mission, led by Sir Stafford Cripps, arrived in March 1942 as Britain’s final, urgent attempt to secure Indian cooperation in World War II (WWII). It promised Dominion Status and a new Constituent Assembly after the war, but failed spectacularly due to the British refusal of immediate power and the controversial provincial secession clause.
The Cripps Mission, led by Sir Stafford Cripps, arrived in March 1942 as Britain’s final, urgent attempt to secure Indian cooperation in World War II (WWII). It promised Dominion Status and a new Constituent Assembly after the war, but failed spectacularly due to the British refusal of immediate power and the controversial provincial secession clause.
Detailed Notes (21 points)
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I. Main Proposals and Strategic Intent:
Background: Japan’s entry into WWII (1941) and fall of Rangoon (1942) created extreme British urgency. Cripps was sent to negotiate with Indian leaders.
Political Status: Promise of Dominion Status to India *after* WWII.
Constitutional Body: A Constituent Assembly to frame the new Constitution, elected partly by provincial assemblies and partly nominated by princes.
Partition Clause: A controversial clause allowing any province the right to not join the Indian Union and form a separate Constitution (First explicit British acknowledgment of potential partition).
Wartime Control: Defence would remain entirely under British control during the war.
Immediate Concession: Indians to be immediately included in the Viceroy’s Executive Council (seen as token).
II. Nationalist Response and Dual Rejection:
## Congress:
– Rejected proposals as inadequate; demanded immediate transfer of real power.
– Gandhi: Called it 'a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank' (worthless post-war promise).
– Opposed the provincial secession clause (feared partition).
## Muslim League:
– Opposed as it did not guarantee Pakistan (explicit territorial division).
– Demanded explicit recognition of 'Two-Nation Theory' before constitutional framing.
## Hindu Mahasabha:
– Opposed the idea of provinces opting out; feared the disintegration of India.
III. Reasons for Failure and Legacy:
No Real Power Transfer: The most critical failure was the British Government's unwillingness to concede real authority immediately, especially keeping Defence under their control.
Irreconcilable Demands: Cripps failed to reconcile the INC’s demand for unity/immediate freedom with the League’s demand for guaranteed partition.
Legacy: The failure convinced Gandhi that further negotiations were useless and confirmed the need for a final, non-constitutional confrontation. It thus directly set the stage for the Quit India Movement (August 1942).
Cripps Mission 1942: Proposals and Responses
| Proposal | Response | Analytical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Dominion Status after WWII | INC rejected; wanted immediate independence | Confirmed INC's goal was Purna Swaraj (since 1929). |
| Right of Provinces to Secede | INC opposed; Muslim League opposed (no guarantee) | First explicit British reference to partition; alienated both major parties. |
| Defence under British control | Rejected by Congress | Showed Britain's unwillingness to trust Indians with real power during the crisis. |
| Immediate Inclusion in Executive Council | Seen as token concession | Did not grant effective cabinet status or end Viceroy's power. |
Fun Facts
Cripps was considered a friend of India and came with liberal intentions, but his hands were tied by Winston Churchill’s conservative government.
Gandhi famously dismissed the proposals as another 'post-dated cheque'.
Failure of the mission directly triggered Quit India Movement in August 1942.
Mains Key Points
Constitutional Impasse: The Mission's failure marked the final breakdown of constitutional negotiations, confirming the British unwillingness to transfer real power during the war.
Ideological Conflict: The rejection highlighted the irreconcilable differences between the INC's demand for Purna Swaraj/Unity and the League's demand for Guaranteed Partition.
Partition's Seeds: The clause allowing provincial secession was a strategic British move that officially planted the seeds of partition in the constitutional arena, which Congress vehemently opposed.
Catalyst for Revolt: The Mission's failure convinced Gandhi that the British were weak and negotiations were futile, leading to the decision to launch the Quit India Movement (1942).
Prelims Strategy Tips
Cripps Mission sent in March 1942 under Sir Stafford Cripps.
Promised Dominion Status and a Constituent Assembly after WWII.
Allowed provinces to opt out of Union → implied partition.
Rejected by both Congress (no immediate independence) and Muslim League (no Pakistan guarantee).
Ramgarh Congress Session (1940): Finalizing the Anti-War Stance
Key Point
The Ramgarh Session (March 1940), held under the presidency of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, was the last annual session before the launch of the Quit India Movement (1942). It formally condemned the August Offer's promise of Dominion Status and firmly reiterated the demand for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
The Ramgarh Session (March 1940), held under the presidency of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, was the last annual session before the launch of the Quit India Movement (1942). It formally condemned the August Offer's promise of Dominion Status and firmly reiterated the demand for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Venue and President: Held in Ramgarh (Bihar) in March 1940; presided over by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
Key Resolution (Purna Swaraj): The session firmly passed a resolution declaring that nothing short of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) would be acceptable.
Response to War: It condemned the British government for unilaterally declaring India at war (WWII) and affirmed the previous resignation of Congress ministries (1939).
Call to Action: The Congress endorsed the decision to initiate Civil Disobedience at an appropriate time under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. This decision affirmed the organizational readiness for the Individual Satyagraha (launched later that year).
Significance: Ramgarh was crucial as it was the last full session before the final confrontation. It affirmed the dual nature of Congress policy: rejection of British constitutional offers (August Offer) and commitment to a mass struggle.
Ramgarh Session (1940)
| Year/Month | President | Location | Key Decision |
|---|---|---|---|
| March 1940 | Maulana Abul Kalam Azad | Ramgarh (Bihar) | Reiterated Purna Swaraj; rejected August Offer approach; authorized Gandhi to lead CDM. |
Fun Facts
The 1940 session was disrupted by rains, forcing delegates to hold the proceedings in a simpler enclosure.
Azad served as the Congress President continuously from 1940 to 1946 due to the wartime political crisis and subsequent arrests.
Mains Key Points
The Ramgarh Session finalized the INC's policy of non-cooperation with the imperial war effort, ensuring the nationalist movement prioritized Purna Swaraj over all other concerns.
It gave Mahatma Gandhi the final organizational mandate to launch the Individual Satyagraha and later the Quit India Movement, affirming his undisputed leadership.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Ramgarh Session (1940) was presided over by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
It was the last full session before the Quit India Movement (1942).
The session endorsed the resignation of Congress ministries (1939).
Movements in Princely States (1938–1942): Praja Mandal and AISPC
Key Point
The Praja Mandal Movement and the All India States’ People’s Conference (AISPC) led the struggle for democratic rights and responsible government against the autocratic rule of the Princely States. This movement intensified post-1938, becoming integrated with the main national struggle.
The Praja Mandal Movement and the All India States’ People’s Conference (AISPC) led the struggle for democratic rights and responsible government against the autocratic rule of the Princely States. This movement intensified post-1938, becoming integrated with the main national struggle.
Detailed Notes (9 points)
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I. Objectives and Organisations:
Praja Mandals: These were local, political bodies established in various Princely States (e.g., Jaipur, Rajkot, Mysore) by the subjects. Their primary objective was to demand responsible government (ministries accountable to the people) and the establishment of civil liberties.
AISPC (1927): The All India States’ People’s Conference was the central coordinating body for the Praja Mandals, linking the struggles across different states.
INC Policy: Initially, the Indian National Congress (INC) followed a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of the Princely States (until 1938).
II. Shift in Strategy and Intensification (Post-1938):
Haripura Session (1938): The INC officially declared its active support for the struggles of the people in the Princely States, providing a massive boost to the movement.
Rajkot Satyagraha (1938–39): A famous early movement led by Vallabhbhai Patel against the ruler of Rajkot, forcing the issue of reform onto the national stage.
Constitutional Barrier: The movement was crucial in opposing the federal clause of the 1935 Act, which sought to include the Princes to dilute nationalist power.
War-time Mobilization (1942): During the Quit India Movement, the AISPC urged the rulers to support the national struggle, leading to parallel revolts within the states.
Princely States Movement (Post-1937)
| Organisation | Year | Key Focus | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| AISPC | 1927 | Central coordination body for Praja Mandals | Linked local struggles across states; sought responsible government. |
| INC Policy Shift | 1938 (Haripura) | Active support for States' people's struggles | Integrated the States' struggle into the main nationalist agenda. |
| Rajkot Satyagraha | 1938–39 | Demand for democratic reforms in Rajkot State | Led by Vallabhbhai Patel; brought the issue of autocracy to the fore. |
Fun Facts
The AISPC later became an important negotiating partner during the integration of the Princely States into the Indian Union.
Many INC leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, actively championed the cause of the Praja Mandals.
Mains Key Points
Integration of Struggle: The movement was crucial as it formally integrated the struggle for democratic rights in the States with the national struggle for independence in British India (post-Haripura).
Against Autocracy: It directly challenged the autocratic rule of the Princes and exposed the hypocrisy of the British in sustaining feudalism while preaching democracy.
Political Impact: The movement successfully prevented the 1935 Act's federation clause (which relied on Princes' support) from being implemented, thereby aiding the nationalist cause.
Prelims Strategy Tips
AISPC (All India States’ People’s Conference) founded in 1927.
Praja Mandals were local organizations in Princely States.
INC adopted a policy of active support for the states' people at the Haripura Session (1938).
The Butler Committee (1927) dealt with the relationship between the Crown and Princely States.
Congress Socialist Party (CSP) (1934): The Left Wing
Key Point
The Congress Socialist Party (CSP), founded in 1934 within the Indian National Congress (INC), represented the left-wing, socialist, and secular ideological current. Its goal was to radicalize the INC's agenda, demanding Purna Swaraj and a socialist reconstruction of the Indian economy.
The Congress Socialist Party (CSP), founded in 1934 within the Indian National Congress (INC), represented the left-wing, socialist, and secular ideological current. Its goal was to radicalize the INC's agenda, demanding Purna Swaraj and a socialist reconstruction of the Indian economy.
Detailed Notes (9 points)
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I. Formation and Leadership:
Formation: Formed in 1934 in Bombay (Mumbai).
Founders and Leaders: Key founders included Acharya Narendra Dev, Jayaprakash Narayan (J.P.), Minoo Masani, and Ram Manohar Lohia. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose were generally supportive of the group's ideas.
Context: The CSP emerged from the disillusionment following the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) and the rise of fascist and communist movements globally. Its aim was to provide a clear socio-economic direction to the freedom struggle.
II. Ideology and Contribution:
Core Ideology: Democratic Socialism. The CSP rejected both the conservative elements of the Congress and the tactics of the Communist Party of India (CPI). It aimed to convert the INC from a strictly national platform into a socialist mass organization.
Key Demands: Advocated for abolition of the Zamindari system without compensation, state control of key industries and banks, and workers' and peasants' rights.
Relationship with INC: The CSP functioned within the Congress, acting as the pressure group that continually pushed the INC toward more radical resolutions (e.g., Purna Swaraj, agrarian reforms).
Quit India Role: CSP leaders played a heroic role during the Quit India Movement (1942), going underground and organizing resistance after the main INC leadership was arrested.
Congress Socialist Party (CSP) Summary
| Year | Founders | Ideology | Key Role |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1934 | Acharya Narendra Dev, J.P., Minoo Masani | Democratic Socialism (rejecting capitalism and colonial rule) | Acted as a pressure group within the INC; organized Quit India underground resistance. |
Fun Facts
The CSP was critical of Gandhi's withdrawal of the CDM but respected his leadership.
The group’s youth and energy were instrumental in sustaining the freedom struggle during the political lull of the mid-1930s.
Jayaprakash Narayan (J.P.) became a national hero for his daring actions and leadership during the 1942 Quit India Movement.
Mains Key Points
Left-Wing Assertion: The CSP represented the ideological shift in nationalism towards socio-economic issues (Socialism), challenging the Congress's predominantly bourgeois character.
Pressure Group: By functioning within the INC, the CSP successfully exerted pressure that led to the adoption of the National Planning Committee (NPC) and the inclusion of pro-worker/peasant demands in the 1937 election manifesto.
Post-Independence Legacy: The party supplied the intellectual and ideological framework for the left-wing politics and the opposition in post-independence India.
Prelims Strategy Tips
CSP was founded in 1934.
Key founders: Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayaprakash Narayan (J.P.).
CSP aimed to make the INC adopt Socialism.
The party was formed after the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
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