Modern History Playlist
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1
Advent of Europeans in India
10 topics
2
Decline of the Mughal Empire
7 topics
3
Emergence of Regional States
11 topics
4
Expansion and Consolidation of British Power
23 topics
5
British Government & Economic Policies (1757-1857)
7 topics
6
Social Reform Movements
24 topics
7
People’s Resistance before 1857
13 topics
8
The revolt of 1857
7 topics
9
Growth of Nationalism and Moderate Phase of Congress
9 topics
10
British Administration in India
9 topics
11
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
6 topics
12
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
8 topics
13
India’s Response to First World War and Home Rule Movement
5 topics
14
Emergence of Gandhi
10 topics
15
Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
10 topics
16
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities
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17
Struggle For Swaraj: 1928-1935
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Period from 1935-42
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Period from 1942-47
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Chapter 15: Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
Chapter Test10 topics•Estimated reading: 30 minutes
Background of Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement (1919–1920)
Key Point
The Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) and the Khilafat Movement were strategically merged under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, marking the culmination of widespread post-WWI discontent. These movements arose from the British betrayal regarding self-governance promises ( Rowlatt Act , Montford Reforms) and the Muslim outrage over the dismemberment of the Ottoman Caliphate (Khilafat issue), leading to the first pan-Indian mass struggle.
The Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) and the Khilafat Movement were strategically merged under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, marking the culmination of widespread post-WWI discontent. These movements arose from the British betrayal regarding self-governance promises ( Rowlatt Act , Montford Reforms) and the Muslim outrage over the dismemberment of the Ottoman Caliphate (Khilafat issue), leading to the first pan-Indian mass struggle.
Detailed Notes (13 points)
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I. Political and Moral Outrage:
The Betrayal (Rowlatt Act, 1919): The Rowlatt Act (detention without trial) was seen as a direct betrayal of India's loyalty during WWI and the promise of the Montagu Declaration, strategically confirming that British policy was rooted in repression.
The Moral Crisis (Jallianwala Bagh, 1919): General Dyer’s brutal firing served as the ultimate moral condemnation of the British Raj, destroying Indian faith in the colonial system's sense of justice and loyalty.
The Whitewash (Hunter Committee): The failure of the Hunter Committee to severely punish Dyer and the subsequent exoneration of officials deepened nationalist anger and proved the British system was incapable of delivering justice.
Limited Reforms (Montford, 1919): The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms disappointed nationalists. The flawed introduction of dyarchy and the extension of separate electorates confirmed that the British intent was still primarily to *divide* and *control*.
II. Socio-Economic and Religious Discontent:
Economic Hardship: Post-WWI widespread inflation, high prices, food shortages, and increased unemployment fueled deep discontent across all social strata (peasants, workers, middle class), creating a ready base for mass mobilization.
The Khilafat Grievance (Religious Outrage): This was the immediate religious trigger for Muslim participation. The harsh Treaty of Sèvres (1920) proposed the dismemberment of the Ottoman Caliphate (Turkey), seen by Indian Muslims as an attack on Islam itself.
Khilafat Committee (1919): Formed in Bombay under the leadership of the Ali brothers (Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, and Hakim Ajmal Khan, its aim was to protect the Caliphate and pressure the British government.
III. Gandhi’s Strategic Merger and Consolidation:
Strategic Opportunity: Gandhi viewed the Khilafat issue as a unique opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity, arguing that supporting the Muslim cause was the duty of Hindus, thus bridging the political gap.
Adoption of NCM (1920): This merger was formalized when the Indian National Congress adopted the Non-Cooperation Programme at its Nagpur Session (December 1920). The Congress formally aligned with the Khilafat leaders.
Legacy: This strategic consolidation achieved the successful linking of diverse classes, regions, and religious communities under a unified political programme and a single methodology (Satyagraha), marking the definitive beginning of the Gandhian mass movement phase in India.
Events Leading to Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement
| Event | Year | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Rowlatt Act | 1919 | Sparked Gandhi’s first satyagraha; exposed British intent |
| Jallianwala Bagh Massacre | 1919 | Destroyed faith in British justice; extreme mass outrage |
| Hunter Committee | 1919 | Whitewashed British responsibility; deepened anger |
| Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms | 1919 | Disappointing limited reforms; extended communal electorates |
| Treaty of Sevres / Khilafat Issue | 1920 | Angered Muslims worldwide; religious identity mobilized |
| Nagpur Session of Congress | 1920 | Adopted Non-Cooperation; merged with Khilafat cause |
Fun Facts
Mahatma Gandhi initially hesitated to lead Khilafat agitation but later saw it as a chance for Hindu-Muslim unity.
Ali brothers became iconic leaders of the Khilafat cause, inspiring massive Muslim participation.
The Nagpur session also reorganized Congress on provincial linguistic basis, increasing grassroots reach.
Mains Key Points
Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, and disappointment with reforms created political discontent.
Khilafat grievance gave Gandhi a chance to unite Hindus and Muslims.
The merger of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation turned nationalism into a mass movement.
This phase marked the beginning of Gandhi’s dominance and mass-based struggle in India.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh were immediate political triggers.
Khilafat issue arose due to dismemberment of Ottoman Empire.
Nagpur Session (1920) → Congress adopted Non-Cooperation.
Movement marked first Hindu-Muslim joint struggle under Gandhi.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922): Course and Impact
Key Point
The Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) , formally adopted at the Nagpur Session (Dec 1920), was the first mass, nationwide struggle under Gandhi’s leadership. It was strategically merged with the Khilafat issue to achieve unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity. Though abruptly withdrawn in February 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, it fundamentally transformed the nature of Indian nationalism.
The Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) , formally adopted at the Nagpur Session (Dec 1920), was the first mass, nationwide struggle under Gandhi’s leadership. It was strategically merged with the Khilafat issue to achieve unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity. Though abruptly withdrawn in February 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, it fundamentally transformed the nature of Indian nationalism.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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I. Programme and Implementation:
Adoption: The NCM was formally adopted at the Nagpur Session of Congress (December 1920), aligning with Khilafat leaders and adopting a non-violent method for achieving Swaraj .
Boycott & Surrender: The program included the surrender of titles (like 'Sir' and 'Kaiser-i-Hind') and the boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, and foreign cloth. Lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up practice.
Constructive Work: Emphasis was placed on establishing National Educational Institutions (e.g., Jamia Millia Islamia), promoting Khadi and Swadeshi industries, and campaigning for Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability.
Economic Dimension: Organized bonfires of foreign cloth took place, which successfully provided the masses an active role in the movement and hit British imports hard.
II. Mass Participation and Spread:
Unprecedented Unity: The merger with the Khilafat issue cemented Hindu-Muslim unity at the grassroots level, particularly with the active participation of the Ali brothers.
Wider Social Base: The movement spread rapidly beyond urban elites to include peasants in Awadh (under Baba Ramchandra), workers in Assam tea plantations, and local/tribal agitations like the Eka movement (UP).
Women’s Role: Women participated for the first time in large numbers, picketing liquor shops and foreign cloth stores, injecting huge moral force.
Organisational Restructuring: The Nagpur Session also led to the reorganization of the Congress on a provincial linguistic basis, increasing its grassroots reach and making it a true mass party.
III. Withdrawal and Legacy:
Chauri Chaura Incident (February 1922): In Gorakhpur district (UP), protestors clashed violently with police, leading to the death of 22 policemen. Gandhi, distressed by the violence and convinced that the masses were not yet ready for non-violence, suspended the movement immediately.
Government Repression: The British countered the movement with arrests of leaders (including Gandhi later in 1922), police violence, and strict censorship.
Legacy: Despite its abrupt end, the NCM created unprecedented political awakening, spread nationalist ideas to the villages, made Gandhi the supreme leader of Indian politics, and laid the groundwork for future mass struggles (Civil Disobedience, Quit India).
Timeline of the Non-Cooperation Movement
| Year | Event | Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1920 | Nagpur Congress Session | Non-Cooperation formally adopted ; Gandhi emerged as leader |
| 1920–21 | Boycott Campaign | Boycott of schools, courts, titles, and foreign cloth . |
| 1921 | Mass Participation | Peasants (Awadh), workers, students, and women joined movement. |
| 1921 | Hindu-Muslim Unity | Merger with Khilafat cause strengthened the base. |
| 1922 | Chauri Chaura Incident | Violence led Gandhi to abruptly withdraw the movement. |
Fun Facts
Jamia Millia Islamia (1920) was established in response to the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movements.
Women from middle-class families, like Basanti Devi (wife of C.R. Das), actively picketed shops.
The Congress party membership swelled to over 2 million during this movement.
Mains Key Points
Mass Base: The NCM was revolutionary as it successfully spread nationalism to villages and common people, fundamentally changing the character of the freedom struggle from elite to mass-based.
Ahimsa and Satyagraha: It marked the first large-scale, nationwide application of non-violent methods under Gandhi’s leadership, establishing the ethical and strategic efficacy of Satyagraha.
Withdrawal and Ideology: The abrupt withdrawal highlighted Gandhi’s uncompromising commitment to non-violence (Ahimsa) as an absolute principle, even over political expediency, a defining feature of his leadership.
Organisational Foundation: Despite its abrupt end, it created vast political awakening and mass mobilization, leaving behind a trained corps of volunteers and a reorganized Congress, thus laying the groundwork for future struggles.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Nagpur Session (1920) → Congress adopted Non-Cooperation.
Lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up practice.
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) → Gandhi suspended the movement.
First mass nationwide struggle under Gandhi’s leadership.
Local Struggles During the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (1920–22)
Key Point
The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (1920–22) was revolutionary because it successfully moved beyond the urban elites into villages, forests, and factories. Peasants, tribals, and industrial workers launched parallel local struggles, often adopting nationalist symbols (like Gandhi's name) while fighting specific socio-economic grievances against both colonial authorities and local oppressors.
The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (1920–22) was revolutionary because it successfully moved beyond the urban elites into villages, forests, and factories. Peasants, tribals, and industrial workers launched parallel local struggles, often adopting nationalist symbols (like Gandhi's name) while fighting specific socio-economic grievances against both colonial authorities and local oppressors.
Detailed Notes (11 points)
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I. Peasant and Agrarian Movements:
Awadh (United Provinces): This region saw intense anti-landlord agitation. Peasants, led by local figures like Baba Ramchandra (a former indentured labourer), demanded the abolition of begar (forced labour), reduction of excessive rents, and the abolition of illegal cesses.
- Linkage: Congress leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and local Kisan Sabhas (Peasant Associations) successfully linked these peasant struggles with the national call for Non-Cooperation and Swaraj.
Bihar (Indigo Cultivators): Peasants faced persistent economic grievances, which they explicitly linked to the national movement, demanding relief from oppressive tenure systems.
Gorakhpur (UP): The localized peasant unrest and police brutality culminated tragically in the Chauri Chaura incident (1922), where the masses crossed the boundary of Gandhian non-violence, forcing the movement's abrupt withdrawal.
II. Tribal and Regional Conflicts:
Andhra Pradesh (Forest Satyagraha): In the coastal districts, tribals and peasants launched Forest Satyagrahas. They directly challenged the colonial Forest Laws, which restricted their traditional rights to grazing, fuel wood cutting, and forest produce.
Malabar (Kerala) - Moplah Uprising (1921): This began as a socio-economic struggle of Muslim Moplah tenant farmers against exploitative Hindu landlords (*jenmis*) and the British officials. Initially integrated into the Khilafat-NCM framework, the movement turned violent and communal after the police crackdown, highlighting the challenge of maintaining non-violence.
Punjab (Akali Movement): The Akali Movement sought to reform the management of Sikh Gurudwaras by removing corrupt, British-backed Mahants (priests). Its strong anti-British character aligned perfectly with the NCM's rejection of colonial authority.
III. Labour and Urban Actions:
Assam (Tea Plantations): Workers in the tea plantations launched strikes demanding better wages and improved working conditions. Many attempted to leave the plantations *en masse* to join the NCM struggle, but they faced severe repression by the colonial police, often supported by the planter class.
Major Local Struggles (1920–22)
| Region | Leader/Group | Nature of Struggle |
|---|---|---|
| Awadh (UP) | Baba Ramchandra, Kisan Sabhas | Anti-rent, anti-begar peasant struggle (linked to NCM) |
| Malabar (Kerala) | Moplah peasants | Tenant uprising; became violent and communal |
| Assam | Tea plantation workers | Strikes against low wages, poor conditions |
| Andhra Pradesh | Peasants & tribals | Forest satyagraha against colonial restrictions |
| Punjab | Akali Sikhs | Gurudwara reform movement (anti-British Mahants) |
| Gorakhpur (UP) | Local peasants | Chauri Chaura violence ; led to withdrawal of movement |
Fun Facts
In Awadh , peasants often carried Gandhi’s name on flags during their marches, though Gandhi was unaware of their exact actions.
The Akali reformers introduced democratic management in Sikh Gurudwaras, replacing hereditary mahants.
Moplah rebels declared local 'Khilafat kingdoms' before being brutally suppressed by British troops.
Mains Key Points
Wider Social Base: The NCM achieved its primary objective of widening the social base of nationalism beyond the urban elites, successfully penetrating rural, tribal, and working-class segments for the first time.
Linkage of Issues: These local struggles demonstrated that the demand for Swaraj was effective only when linked directly to the everyday socio-economic grievances of the masses (e.g., rent, begar, forest rights).
Challenge to Discipline: Events like the Moplah Rebellion and the Chauri Chaura incident highlighted the fundamental challenge faced by Gandhi: the difficulty of maintaining strict non-violence when deeply rooted agrarian and class conflicts were mobilized.
Decentralization of Power: The local movements showed that the freedom struggle was now decentralized and spontaneously generating resistance against colonial authority and its local indigenous collaborators (landlords/mahants).
Prelims Strategy Tips
Baba Ramchandra → Peasant leader in Awadh during NCM.
Moplah Rebellion (1921) → Malabar, Kerala; initially linked to Khilafat.
Akali Movement → Gurudwara reform struggle in Punjab.
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) → Immediate cause of withdrawal of NCM.
Moplah (Malabar) Uprising, 1921: Agrarian Roots and Communal Tragedy
Key Point
The Moplah Uprising of 1921 in Malabar, Kerala , was a highly significant and violent rebellion that exposed the complex nature of mass politics in India. It began as a legitimate agrarian struggle but quickly mutated into a communal conflict, forcing the Congress and Khilafat leadership to confront the severe challenge of maintaining Gandhian non-violence and unity.
The Moplah Uprising of 1921 in Malabar, Kerala , was a highly significant and violent rebellion that exposed the complex nature of mass politics in India. It began as a legitimate agrarian struggle but quickly mutated into a communal conflict, forcing the Congress and Khilafat leadership to confront the severe challenge of maintaining Gandhian non-violence and unity.
Detailed Notes (13 points)
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I. Causes and Political Fusion:
Agrarian Exploitation: The root cause was the extreme exploitation of the Moplahs (Muslim tenant farmers) by the largely Hindu Jenmis (landlords/Zamindars). Moplahs faced cripplingly high rents, illegal levies (*vasi*), and constant threats of eviction due to the colonial legal structure that favored the Jenmis.
Fusion with Khilafat: The agrarian resentment was mobilized by local leaders under the banner of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements (NCM). The religious fervor associated with the Khilafat cause provided mass mobilization and unity, temporarily merging the local economic struggle with the pan-Indian political demands of Swaraj.
Outbreak: The rebellion was sparked in August 1921 by a police crackdown on Khilafat meetings and the arrest of popular local Khilafat leaders.
II. Nature and Suppression:
Nature of the Uprising: Initially, the rebels' violence was directed solely against the symbols of British authority and exploitative landlords. However, as the movement gained momentum and local Moplah leaders declared 'Khilafat kingdoms,' the violence tragically acquired a communal character, attacking Hindu landlords and, in some areas, forcing conversion, leading to severe communal polarization.
Brutal Suppression: The British responded with extreme ruthlessness. Martial Law was declared, and the suppression involved mass killings, torture, deportations, and forced displacement.
The Wagon Tragedy (1921): The colonial brutality reached a peak with the Wagon Tragedy, where over 60 Moplah prisoners suffocated to death in a closed railway wagon while being transported, highlighting the inhumanity of the British forces.
III. Legacy and Impact on Nationalism:
Challenge to Non-Violence: The violent and communal turn of the Moplah uprising served as a stark precursor to the Chauri Chaura incident. It exposed the volatility of mobilizing deeply rooted economic and religious grievances within the constraints of Gandhian non-violence (Ahimsa).
Alienation of Leadership: The communal violence caused the Congress and Khilafat national leadership to distance themselves from the rebels, weakening the movement.
Communal Polarization: The incident deepened communal distrust in the region, providing a powerful example of how British colonial policy and agrarian tensions could mutually reinforce communal polarization in nationalist politics.
Exposure of Ruthlessness: The brutal suppression highlighted the colonial state’s ruthlessness against armed rebellion, deepening rural resentment in Malabar.
Key Facts about Moplah Uprising (1921)
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Region | Malabar, Kerala (Hindu *Jenmis* vs. Muslim *Moplah* tenants) |
| Causes | Agrarian exploitation (high rents, eviction) fused with Khilafat sentiment |
| Nature | Peasant uprising, later turned communal and violent |
| British Response | Martial law , brutal repression, Wagon Tragedy (suffocation of prisoners) |
| Casualties | Around 10,000 killed ; thousands imprisoned or deported |
| Legacy | Exposed tension between class struggle and Gandhian non-violence |
Fun Facts
The 'Wagon Tragedy' occurred when over 60 Moplah prisoners suffocated to death in a closed railway wagon while being transported.
The rebellion lasted for several months and required deployment of British army regiments for suppression.
Moplah ballads (*Mappila Pattu*) later memorialized the rebellion in local folklore.
Mains Key Points
Agrarian-Religious Fusion: The Moplah uprising demonstrated how deep-seated local agrarian grievances could be mobilized by the larger Khilafat movement, revealing the volatility of such fusion.
Challenge to Ahimsa: It revealed the fundamental tension between class struggle and the rigid constraints of Gandhian non-violence (Ahimsa), exposing the difficulty of controlling deeply rooted militant sentiment with nationalist discipline.
Communal Polarization: The violent turn and subsequent alienation of the Congress leadership underscored the dangers of communal polarization, which the British exploited to discredit the entire Khilafat-NCM merger.
Colonial Ruthlessness: Its brutal suppression, highlighted by the Wagon Tragedy, emphasized the colonial state’s swift and lethal response to any organized armed challenge, deepening rural resentment.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Moplah Uprising → Malabar, Kerala (1921) .
Linked to Khilafat and agrarian discontent.
Suppressed brutally; Wagon Tragedy a key event.
Initially part of Non-Cooperation but later condemned due to communal violence.
Awadh Kisan Movement (1920) and Eka Movement (1921)
Key Point
The peasant struggles in Awadh and Eka (United Provinces) were vital local manifestations of the Non-Cooperation spirit . While the Awadh Kisan Movement under Baba Ramchandra focused on reducing rent and abolishing begar (forced labour), the Eka Movement under Madari Pasi highlighted autonomous peasant militancy. Both linked rural discontent with the wider nationalist struggle, fundamentally changing its social base.
The peasant struggles in Awadh and Eka (United Provinces) were vital local manifestations of the Non-Cooperation spirit . While the Awadh Kisan Movement under Baba Ramchandra focused on reducing rent and abolishing begar (forced labour), the Eka Movement under Madari Pasi highlighted autonomous peasant militancy. Both linked rural discontent with the wider nationalist struggle, fundamentally changing its social base.
Detailed Notes (10 points)
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I. Awadh Kisan Movement (1920): Centralized Linkage:
Leader and Issues: Led by Baba Ramchandra , a sanyasi who worked against the oppression of the Taluqdars (landlords). Key issues included High rents, illegal cesses, and the abolition of begar (forced labour).
Connection with Congress: This movement maintained a strong link with the national struggle. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Kisan Sabhas actively intervened, linking peasant demands to the Non-Cooperation Programme and expanding the Congress’ rural base.
Methods and Nature: Peasants adopted largely peaceful rallies and the withholding of rents (No-Rent campaign). They often carried flags inscribed with Gandhi’s name , symbolizing national legitimacy.
Outcome: Strengthened Congress’ rural base but often faced immediate repression.
II. Eka Movement (1921): Autonomous Militancy:
Leader and Issues: Led by Madari Pasi (a lower-caste leader) and supported by small zamindars and lower-caste peasants. Issues focused on resentment against oppressive landlords, moneylenders, and colonial officials.
Autonomy and Methods: The Eka Movement (Unity) was less directly linked to Congress and more autonomous and militant. Peasants swore an oath of unity (eka) in village meetings, pledging to pay only the recorded rent and oppose eviction by force.
Spread: Movement spread to districts like Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur, exhibiting a strong regional character.
Outcome: British repression effectively crushed the movement by 1922, but its success highlighted the growing peasant militancy and class consciousness in the region.
Comparison: Awadh Kisan Movement vs Eka Movement
| Aspect | Awadh Kisan Movement (1920) | Eka Movement (1921) |
|---|---|---|
| Leader | Baba Ramchandra | Madari Pasi (Lower-Caste leader) |
| Issues | High rents, begar , taluqdars’ oppression | Oppressive landlords, moneylenders, colonial officials |
| Connection with Congress | Strong, linked with Nehru and Kisan Sabhas | Weak , more independent and militant |
| Methods | Peaceful rallies, rent withholding , no begar | Oath of unity , refusal to pay extra rent, village-level mobilization |
| Outcome | Strengthened Congress rural base, faced repression | Suppressed by 1922, but reflected militant peasant consciousness |
Fun Facts
In Awadh , peasants carried Gandhi’s name on green flags in processions, though Gandhi was unaware of their exact actions.
Eka meetings often began with recitations from the Ramayana and Quran, symbolizing unity across religious lines.
Madari Pasi , leader of Eka, came from a lower-caste background , showing peasant movements cut across caste barriers.
Mains Key Points
Wider Social Base: Both movements achieved the NCM’s primary success by widening the social base of nationalism, successfully penetrating rural and lower-caste segments for the first time.
Linkage of Issues: They demonstrated that the abstract demand for Swaraj became effective only when linked directly to the everyday socio-economic grievances of the masses (*e.g.*, *begar*, illegal cesses).
Challenge to Centralization: The Eka Movement particularly highlighted the challenge of maintaining central Congress control and Gandhian non-violence when deeply rooted local class conflicts were mobilized, foreshadowing future struggles over political leadership.
Peasant Consciousness: The movements demonstrated a new level of peasant consciousness and assertion, where farmers were willing to organize themselves and directly challenge the authority of the Taluqdars who were traditional allies of the British Raj.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Awadh Kisan Movement (1920) → Baba Ramchandra , focused on no-begar and anti-rent struggle.
Eka Movement (1921) → Madari Pasi , characterized by the oath of unity and autonomous functioning.
Both reflected peasant assertion during the Non-Cooperation era .
Last Phase of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1921–1922): The Test of Ahimsa
Key Point
The final phase of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) witnessed the peak of mass participation and an unprecedented level of Hindu-Muslim unity . However, the movement's controversial withdrawal, dictated by Mahatma Gandhi's uncompromising commitment to non-violence (Ahimsa) following the Chauri Chaura incident in February 1922 , fundamentally challenged the idea of political expediency.
The final phase of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) witnessed the peak of mass participation and an unprecedented level of Hindu-Muslim unity . However, the movement's controversial withdrawal, dictated by Mahatma Gandhi's uncompromising commitment to non-violence (Ahimsa) following the Chauri Chaura incident in February 1922 , fundamentally challenged the idea of political expediency.
Detailed Notes (12 points)
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I. Peak Mobilisation and Organisational Consolidation:
Congress Sessions: The Nagpur Session (Dec 1920) formally adopted the NCM and structurally reorganized the Congress on a provincial linguistic basis (opening it to peasants). The Ahmedabad Session (Dec 1921) ratified Gandhi’s leadership and intensified the boycott of foreign cloth and legislative councils.
Widespread Participation (1921): Students left institutions in thousands (e.g., Jamia Millia Islamia founded). Prominent lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up practice. Peasants, tribals, workers, and women joined actively in boycotts, strikes, and picketing.
II. Chauri Chaura and Strategic Withdrawal:
Chauri Chaura Incident (Feb 5, 1922): Location was the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces (UP). Protestors clashed violently with police and set fire to the police station, killing 22 policemen. This was a direct violation of the NCM's core principle.
Gandhi’s Rationale: Gandhi was profoundly distressed, insisting that the masses were not yet adequately trained in the discipline of Ahimsa. He argued that continued violence would only lead to further repression and the defeat of the non-violent ideal.
Bardoli Resolution (Feb 1922): The Congress Working Committee (CWC) met at Bardoli, Gujarat, to formally endorse Gandhi’s controversial decision. The Resolution officially suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Constructive Focus: The Bardoli Resolution reaffirmed Congress’ commitment to non-violence and prioritized the Constructive Programme (promotion of Khadi, removal of untouchability, national education) over active civil disobedience.
III. Impact and Legacy:
Clash with Expediency: Many leaders like C.R. Das and Subhas Bose opposed the withdrawal, calling it premature. The incident established Gandhi’s moral authority as paramount over immediate political gains.
Consolidation of Leadership: The withdrawal cemented Gandhi’s position as the undisputed leader and preserved the credibility of the Satyagraha methodology itself.
Foundation for Future: The movement fundamentally transformed Indian politics by mobilizing a mass base and created a nationwide organizational structure, laying the essential groundwork for future Gandhian struggles.
Key Events in Last Phase of Non-Cooperation Movement
| Event | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Nagpur Session | 1920 | Adoption of NCM, Reorganization of Congress on linguistic basis. |
| Ahmedabad Session | 1921 | Intensified boycott, ratified Gandhi’s leadership. |
| Chauri Chaura Incident | 1922 | Violence led to suspension of movement by Gandhi. |
| Bardoli Resolution | 1922 | Congress formally withdrew NCM, reaffirmed non-violence and constructive work. |
Fun Facts
The Bardoli Resolution emphasized constructive work like spinning khadi and social reform over active protest after withdrawal.
Chauri Chaura became a symbol of the challenges in maintaining strict non-violence in mass movements.
Though the movement ended, Congress membership had swelled to nearly 20 lakh people.
Mains Key Points
Test of Ahimsa: The Chauri Chaura incident exposed the difficulty of controlling mass movements within the framework of strict non-violence, leading to Gandhi's moral commitment overriding political expediency.
Consolidation of Leadership: The withdrawal cemented Gandhi’s moral authority and his control over the national movement, ensuring that future struggles would strictly adhere to the methodology of Satyagraha.
Organisational Transformation: The movement fundamentally changed Indian politics by creating a vast mass base (peasants, workers, women) and structurally reorganizing the Congress (linguistic basis).
Foundation for Future: Despite its abrupt end, it trained millions in political participation and defiance, laying the essential groundwork for the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) → 22 policemen killed; Gandhi withdrew movement.
Bardoli Resolution (1922) → Formal suspension of Non-Cooperation.
Nagpur Session (1920) → Adopted Non-Cooperation and restructured Congress.
Ahmedabad Session (1921) → Intensified boycott, reaffirmed Gandhi’s leadership.
People’s Response and Evaluation of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (1920–1922)
Key Point
The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (NCM) evoked unprecedented nationwide participation , bringing peasants, workers, women, and students into the nationalist struggle. Despite its abrupt end, it transformed Indian politics into a mass movement, strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity temporarily, and established Gandhi as the supreme leader.
The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (NCM) evoked unprecedented nationwide participation , bringing peasants, workers, women, and students into the nationalist struggle. Despite its abrupt end, it transformed Indian politics into a mass movement, strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity temporarily, and established Gandhi as the supreme leader.
Detailed Notes (16 points)
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I. Unprecedented Mass Participation (Successes):
Wider Social Base: Successfully brought in peasants (especially in Awadh under Baba Ramchandra) and workers (strikes in Assam tea plantations, Bombay textile mills), linking anti-rent struggles with Non-Cooperation.
Students and Professionals: Thousands of students left government institutions; lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up legal practice.
Women's Visibility: Urban middle-class women joined picketing of liquor shops and foreign cloth stores; leaders like Basanti Devi inspired participation.
Muslims: Actively joined under Khilafat leadership (Ali brothers, Maulana Azad), strengthening Hindu-Muslim unity .
Economic Support: Businessmen supported swadeshi by investing in Indian industries, banks, and insurance companies.
II. Critical Failures and Weaknesses:
Organizational Weakness: Lack of sustained planning and failure to establish parallel institutions (though national institutions like Jamia Millia Islamia were established).
Challenge to Non-Violence: The Chauri Chaura incident (1922) exposed the difficulty of controlling mass movements within the framework of strict non-violence (Ahimsa).
Communal Tensions: The Moplah Rebellion (1921) highlighted the dangers of communal violence and the fragility of the religious basis of unity.
Abrupt Withdrawal: The suspension after Chauri Chaura led to disappointment among radicals like Subhas Bose and C.R. Das.
Repression: British arrested leaders, censored press, and used brutal force against protests.
III. Enduring Legacy:
Transformation: The movement fundamentally transformed Indian politics into a mass-based struggle, changing the social base of the Congress.
Leadership: Established Gandhi’s supremacy as the undisputed political and moral leader of Indian nationalism.
Foundation: Laid the essential groundwork for future mass movements like the Civil Disobedience Movement, by training a large cadre of volunteers in political action and defiance.
Evaluation of Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement
| Aspect | Evaluation |
|---|---|
| Mass Participation | For the first time, peasants, workers, women, students joined in large numbers |
| Hindu-Muslim Unity | Strengthened during Khilafat, but temporary and based on a fragile religious issue. |
| Economic Impact | Boost to Swadeshi industries, Khadi, and national educational institutions. |
| Leadership | Established Gandhi as the undisputed leader of Indian nationalism. |
| Organizational Weakness | Lack of sustained planning; failure to establish viable parallel institutions. |
| Communal Tensions | Moplah Rebellion (1921) highlighted dangers of communal violence and the limits of non-violence. |
| Legacy | Laid foundation for future mass movements (Civil Disobedience and Quit India). |
Fun Facts
Jamia Millia Islamia and Kashi Vidyapeeth were established as national institutions during the movement.
Foreign cloth worth over ₹90 crore was boycotted and burnt in bonfires across India.
Congress membership rose to around 20 lakh during the movement.
Mains Key Points
The movement successfully transformed Indian nationalism into a mass-based struggle, fundamentally changing the social base of the Congress.
It temporarily united Hindus and Muslims on a common platform through Khilafat, achieving the greatest organizational Hindu-Muslim unity since the Lucknow Pact.
The Chauri Chaura incident and subsequent withdrawal established Gandhi’s moral authority over political expediency, dictating the adherence of future struggles to the methodology of Ahimsa.
Despite short duration, it provided millions with political education and defiance training, laying the essential foundation for future mass movements.
Prelims Strategy Tips
First nationwide mass struggle under Gandhi’s leadership.
Non-Cooperation merged with Khilafat → Hindu-Muslim unity.
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) led to suspension.
Established Gandhi’s supremacy in national politics.
Calcutta Special Session (September 1920): Adoption of Non-Cooperation
Key Point
The Non-Cooperation Resolution was presented by Mahatma Gandhi at this Special Session in Calcutta . Key leaders, including C.R. Das , Bipin Chandra Pal , and Annie Besant , opposed the proposal, particularly the boycott of legislative elections. The resolution's passage, later confirmed at the Nagpur Session (Dec 1920) , initiated the first mass-based national movement under Gandhi, later leading to the formation of the Swaraj Party (1923) after the movement's withdrawal.
The Non-Cooperation Resolution was presented by Mahatma Gandhi at this Special Session in Calcutta . Key leaders, including C.R. Das , Bipin Chandra Pal , and Annie Besant , opposed the proposal, particularly the boycott of legislative elections. The resolution's passage, later confirmed at the Nagpur Session (Dec 1920) , initiated the first mass-based national movement under Gandhi, later leading to the formation of the Swaraj Party (1923) after the movement's withdrawal.
Detailed Notes (16 points)
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I. Calcutta Special Session (September 1920)
Purpose : Called specifically to decide on the program for the merger of the Khilafat Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) .
President : Presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai .
Core Proposal : Mahatma Gandhi proposed the NCM program (boycott of foreign goods, surrender of titles, and boycott of government institutions, courts, and schools).
Key Opposition : Leaders like C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , B.C. Pal , and Annie Besant strongly objected, mainly over the boycott of Legislative Councils, preferring Council Entry to obstruct the government from within.
Outcome : Passed by a narrow majority, primarily due to the emotional appeal and organizational strength of the Khilafat leaders (like the Ali Brothers) and Gandhi’s personal influence.
II. Suppression under Lord Reading (1921-1926)
Viceroy : Lord Reading (1921-1926), a former Lord Chief Justice, adopted a policy of rigid suppression against the NCM.
Tactics : Used the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) to ban public assemblies and volunteer corps (like the Khilafat Volunteers).
Mass Arrests : Thousands of leaders (including C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , Lala Lajpat Rai ) were arrested by December 1921. Gandhi himself was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to six years.
Specific Repression : Imposed Martial Law during the Moplah Rebellion (1921) in Malabar, and intensified lathi charges after the Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922).
III. Consequence: Formation of Swaraj Party (1923)
Cause : The abrupt withdrawal of the NCM following the Chauri Chaura incident caused disillusionment and an ideological split at the Gaya Session (Dec 1922).
Pro-Changers (Swarajists) : Led by C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary) . They resigned from the Congress and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in January 1923.
Swarajist Goal : To contest the elections under the 1919 Reforms and 'wreck the constitution from within' by creating continuous deadlock in the Councils.
No-Changers : Led by Vallabhbhai Patel , C. Rajagopalachari , and Rajendra Prasad . They insisted on continuing Gandhi's constructive programme (Khadi, removal of untouchability) and boycotting the Councils.
Key Events & Factions (1920–1923)
| Session/Event | Date | Significance/Key Figures |
|---|---|---|
| Calcutta Special Session | Sep 1920 | NCM Resolution first proposed by Gandhi ; opposed by C.R. Das ; merged Khilafat and NCM. |
| Nagpur Annual Session | Dec 1920 | NCM formally adopted; Congress constitution restructured on linguistic lines. |
| Chauri Chaura Incident | Feb 1922 | Led to the immediate withdrawal of NCM by Gandhi. |
| Gaya Session & Split | Dec 1922 | Council Entry proposal rejected; C.R. Das resigned. |
| Formation of Swaraj Party | Jan 1923 | Formed by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (Pro-Changers) for political action within legislatures. |
Fun Facts
The debate over ' Council Entry ' was so intense that it almost split the Congress leadership, foreshadowing the later formation of the Swaraj Party .
Lord Reading was highly critical of Gandhi, finding it 'amusing' that Gandhi insisted on non-violence while the movement often descended into disorder.
The Swarajists later succeeded in exposing the weaknesses of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) from within the legislative councils.
Mains Key Points
The Calcutta and Nagpur Sessions marked the official shift in Congress strategy towards mass-based direct action and the merger of Khilafat and national causes.
The Suppression under Reading proved that the colonial state would use legal and lethal force to counter organized non-violent challenges, yet failed to crush the nationalist spirit.
The Swaraj Party highlighted the ideological rift and the need for a dual strategy in the nationalist movement: constructive work outside and political pressure inside the legislature.
The NCM, despite its withdrawal, established Gandhi's unchallenged leadership and transformed Congress from an elite body into a mass organization.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Calcutta Special Session (1920) was presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai .
NCM was formally adopted at the Nagpur Session (Dec 1920).
Lord Reading was the Viceroy during the peak and withdrawal of the NCM.
The Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) was used for mass arrests during the NCM.
Swaraj Party (Pro-Changers) was founded by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru in 1923 .
Suppression under Lord Reading and the NCM (1921-1926)
Key Point
Lord Reading (1921-1926) was the Viceroy of India during the height of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement , adopting a rigid policy of suppression . The government used the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) to ban protests and volunteer corps. This era saw mass arrests of key leaders, including C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , and Gandhi himself (March 1922), and the severe imposition of Martial Law during the Moplah Rebellion (1921) .
Lord Reading (1921-1926) was the Viceroy of India during the height of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement , adopting a rigid policy of suppression . The government used the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) to ban protests and volunteer corps. This era saw mass arrests of key leaders, including C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , and Gandhi himself (March 1922), and the severe imposition of Martial Law during the Moplah Rebellion (1921) .
Detailed Notes (8 points)
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I. The Viceroy's Administration:
Lord Reading served as the Viceroy of India from April 1921 to April 1926 . As a former Lord Chief Justice of England, he represented a subtle shift from outright military repression (like that under Chelmsford) to a more systematic legal and administrative crackdown.
The movement's peak, the Chauri Chaura incident, and its subsequent withdrawal all occurred during his term.
II. Suppression Strategy:
Restrictive Laws : The British government rapidly employed the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) and the Seditious Meetings Act to declare public assemblies illegal and ban volunteer corps (including Congress's National Volunteers and Khilafat Volunteers).
Mass Arrests : By December 1921 , thousands of agitators were arrested, including top leaders like C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , and Lala Lajpat Rai . Mahatma Gandhi was strategically arrested in March 1922 , immediately after the movement's suspension, and sentenced to six years for sedition.
Violent Repression : Police executed lathi charges and firing on protestors. The government imposed Martial Law in Malabar during the Moplah Rebellion (1921) , resulting in severe and indiscriminate repression against the peasant rebels.
Media Censorship : Strict control was implemented over the nationalist press and literature, forcing many papers to shut down to prevent the spread of the movement's message and maintain control over public discourse.
British Response to NCM
| Viceroy | Term | Repression Tactics |
|---|---|---|
| Lord Chelmsford | 1916–1921 | Rowlatt Act , Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (Phase leading to NCM) |
| Lord Reading | 1921–1926 | Mass arrests, Criminal Law Amendment Act , Martial Law (Moplah) , and arrest of Gandhi in 1922. |
Fun Facts
Lord Reading , being a former judicial authority, made Gandhi's trial a highly publicized international event, where Gandhi famously accepted the charge of sedition.
The arrest of Gandhi ironically coincided with the formal suspension of the movement, which reduced the immediate public backlash, though large-scale repression continued.
The repression showed that while the British feared Gandhi's ability to mobilize masses, they were fully prepared to use the 'rule of law' and brute force simultaneously.
Mains Key Points
The British suppression proved that the colonial state would employ a mix of legal repression (Reading) and lethal force (Martial Law) to crush any organized challenge to its authority.
The mass arrests and censorship significantly weakened the organizational capacity of the Congress and contributed to the sense of disillusionment that led to the formation of the Swaraj Party.
The difference in repression tactics—using a political trial for Gandhi vs. outright Martial Law for the Moplahs—showed the British strategy of selective and targeted suppression based on perceived threat level and political cost.
Despite the repression, the NCM succeeded in bringing the freedom struggle to the masses and established the anti-imperialist credentials of the Congress.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Lord Reading was the Viceroy when the NCM was withdrawn.
Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to six years.
The British used the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) for banning volunteer groups and mass arrests.
The Moplah Rebellion (1921) in Malabar saw the imposition of Martial Law under Reading.
Consequences of NCM: Formation of Swaraj Party (1923)
Key Point
The abrupt withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) led to the ' Council Entry ' debate, causing a split in the Congress. Leaders like C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary) formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in January 1923 . Known as the ' Pro-Changers ', their aim was to enter the legislative councils and ' wreck the constitution from within ', providing a new avenue for political resistance.
The abrupt withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) led to the ' Council Entry ' debate, causing a split in the Congress. Leaders like C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary) formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in January 1923 . Known as the ' Pro-Changers ', their aim was to enter the legislative councils and ' wreck the constitution from within ', providing a new avenue for political resistance.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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I. Cause of the Split and Ideological Rift:
Disillusionment : The sudden suspension of the NCM following the Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922) led a faction of leaders to feel that direct mass action was either too slow or too volatile.
Ineffective Boycott : They argued that the policy of completely boycotting the Councils, established under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) , had proven ineffective and created a political vacuum.
Gaya Session Rejection : The ' Council Entry ' proposal, strongly advocated by C.R. Das, was ultimately rejected by the majority at the Gaya Session of the INC in December 1922 .
II. 'Pro-Changers' (Swarajists):
Leaders : This group was led by C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary).
Strategy : Their motto was 'Responsive Non-Cooperation'. They planned to participate in the 1923 elections, enter the Legislative Councils, and utilize the legislature as an arena for political struggle. Their goal was not to cooperate but to obstruct government functioning and expose the limitations of the 1919 Reforms.
Formation : C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from the Congress and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in January 1923 .
III. 'No-Changers' (Non-Swarajists):
Leaders : This group was led by staunch Gandhians like Vallabhbhai Patel , C. Rajagopalachari , and Dr. Rajendra Prasad .
Strategy : They insisted on continuing the triple programme outlined by Gandhi: constructive programme (Khadi, removal of untouchability, national education) and maintaining the complete boycott of the Councils. They believed this grassroots work was essential for preparing the masses for the next phase of mass civil disobedience.
IV. Impact and Dual Strategy:
The split divided the political work: the Swarajists kept the movement relevant in the political and intellectual arena (legislatures), while the No-Changers built the grassroots base necessary for future movements.
After his release, Gandhi acknowledged the importance of both factions and brokered an agreement in 1924, allowing Swarajists to work within the Councils without disrupting the Congress organisation.
Congress Factional Split (1922-23)
| Faction | Leaders | Stance on Council Entry |
|---|---|---|
| Pro-Changers (Swaraj Party) | C.R. Das (President), Motilal Nehru (Secretary) | Favoured entry to 'wreck' reforms from within (Responsive Non-Cooperation). |
| No-Changers | Vallabhbhai Patel , C. Rajagopalachari , Dr. Rajendra Prasad | Opposed entry; focused on Gandhi's constructive programme and mass preparation. |
Fun Facts
The Swarajists achieved considerable success in the 1923 elections , winning nearly half the elected seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and forming a strong opposition.
The party's full name was Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party, emphasizing the continued cooperation with Muslim leaders.
Motilal Nehru became the Leader of the Opposition in the Central Legislative Assembly, effectively using his position to expose British policies.
Mains Key Points
The formation of the Swaraj Party was a direct consequence of the political vacuum created by the NCM's withdrawal, highlighting the frustration among politically active leaders.
The party institutionalized a crucial dual strategy for the nationalist movement: mass mobilization outside (No-Changers) and political struggle inside the legislatures (Pro-Changers).
Swarajists succeeded in exposing the sham of the 1919 Reforms from within the Councils and prevented the legislatures from becoming mere rubber stamps for the colonial administration.
The split forced Gandhi to mediate and later acknowledge the value of the Swarajists' parliamentary work, contributing to the Congress's capacity to govern in the future.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Swaraj Party was formed in January 1923 by C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary) .
The split occurred after the 'Council Entry' proposal was rejected at the Gaya Session (Dec 1922).
The ' Pro-Changers ' contested elections under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919).
The ' No-Changers ' led the constructive programme.
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