Modern History Playlist
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1
Advent of Europeans in India
9 topics
2
Decline of the Mughal Empire
7 topics
3
Emergence of Regional States
11 topics
4
Expansion and Consolidation of British Power
19 topics
5
British Government & Economic Policies (1757–1857)
4 topics
6
Social Reform Movements
20 topics
7
People’s Resistance before 1857
3 topics
8
The revolt of 1857
6 topics
9
Growth of Nationalism and Moderate Phase of Congress
6 topics
10
British Administration in India
7 topics
11
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
5 topics
12
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
8 topics
13
India’s Response to First World War and Home Rule Movement
4 topics
14
Emergence of Gandhi
6 topics
15
Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
7 topics
16
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities
5 topics
17
Struggle For Swaraj: 1928-1935
13 topics
18
Period from 1935-42
9 topics
19
Period from 1942-47
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Chapter 8: The revolt of 1857
Chapter Test6 topics•Estimated reading: 18 minutes
Background of the Revolt of 1857
Key Point
The Revolt of 1857, called the First War of Independence, was the result of deep-seated discontent against British colonial policies across political, economic, social, religious, and military spheres.
The Revolt of 1857, called the First War of Independence, was the result of deep-seated discontent against British colonial policies across political, economic, social, religious, and military spheres.
Detailed Notes (24 points)
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Political Causes:
- Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie annexed states like Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Awadh (on grounds of misgovernance).
- Subsidiary Alliance forced rulers to disband armies and accept British protection, reducing sovereignty.
- Many Indian rulers and nobles were pensioned off or humiliated (e.g., Nana Saheb denied pension, Rani Lakshmibai denied adoption rights).
- The annexation of Awadh in 1856 created massive resentment among both nobility and common people.
Economic Causes:
- Exploitative land revenue systems (Permanent, Ryotwari, Mahalwari) created peasant misery.
- High revenue demands led to frequent famines and indebtedness of peasants.
- Indian handicrafts collapsed due to competition from cheap British machine-made goods.
- Drain of Wealth theory (Dadabhai Naoroji) explained systematic transfer of Indian resources to Britain.
- Displacement of artisans, zamindars, and peasants generated deep economic grievances.
Social and Religious Causes:
- Social reforms like abolition of sati (1829), widow remarriage (1856), were progressive but aroused suspicion among conservative groups.
- Spread of Western education and missionary activities created fear of conversion to Christianity.
- Religious sentiments were hurt by laws allowing Hindu widows to remarry and opening of public institutions to all castes.
- Brahmins and traditional elites feared loss of status in new socio-religious environment.
Military Causes:
- Indian sepoys formed the bulk of the army but faced racial discrimination in pay, promotion, and service conditions.
- Sepoys were required to serve overseas under the General Service Enlistment Act (1856), violating caste and religious taboos.
- They were often deployed in distant wars (Afghanistan, Burma, etc.) without recognition or adequate rewards.
- Resentment spread due to frequent use of Indian troops to annex princely states.
Immediate Cause:
- Introduction of the Enfield rifle cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat offended Hindu and Muslim soldiers alike.
- Court martial and harsh punishment of soldiers at Barrackpore and Meerut triggered open rebellion.
Fun Facts
Nana Saheb, denied his pension, became one of the main leaders of 1857 revolt.
The annexation of Awadh displaced over 75,000 soldiers and officials who joined the rebellion.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was reluctant initially but accepted leadership under pressure.
Mains Key Points
The Revolt of 1857 was the first major expression of collective Indian discontent against British rule.
It had multiple causes—political, economic, social, military—which created a broad coalition of rebels.
Though triggered by the cartridge controversy, its roots lay in decades of exploitation and resentment.
Its failure revealed lack of unity, but it laid the foundation for later nationalist struggles.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Immediate cause → Enfield rifle cartridges.
General Service Enlistment Act → 1856.
Doctrine of Lapse → Lord Dalhousie.
Awadh annexed → 1856 under Dalhousie.
Course of the Revolt of 1857
Key Point
The Revolt of 1857 began at Meerut and quickly spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Bihar, and Central India. It involved sepoys, peasants, zamindars, and rulers, but was eventually suppressed by the British with brutal force.
The Revolt of 1857 began at Meerut and quickly spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Bihar, and Central India. It involved sepoys, peasants, zamindars, and rulers, but was eventually suppressed by the British with brutal force.
Detailed Notes (12 points)
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Meerut (10 May 1857): 85 sepoys punished for refusing Enfield cartridges; comrades mutinied and freed them; marched to Delhi.
Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar proclaimed Emperor; Bakht Khan led rebels; British retook Delhi in September 1857 after heavy fighting; Zafar exiled to Rangoon.
Kanpur: Nana Saheb declared Peshwa; Tantia Tope and Azimullah Khan assisted; massacre at Bibighar intensified conflict; British recaptured Kanpur in July.
Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal declared her son Birjis Qadr Nawab; Residency siege lasted 87 days; finally suppressed by Sir Colin Campbell.
Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai resisted annexation; allied with Tantia Tope; fought British and Scindias; died in Gwalior (June 1858).
Bareilly (Rohilkhand): Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed ruler; suppressed by April 1858.
Bihar (Jagdishpur): Kunwar Singh, aged 80, became rallying figure; fought till his death (April 1858).
Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah, fiery orator, mobilized both Hindus and Muslims; executed in 1858.
Central India: Tantia Tope carried guerrilla warfare across Malwa, Bundelkhand, Rajasthan; betrayed and executed in April 1859.
Arrah (Bihar): Small group of Europeans and loyal sepoys resisted siege by rebels; relief by William Taylor and Major Eyre boosted British morale.
Punjab: Disaffection limited due to loyalty of Sikh chiefs and princes; Punjab became base for British reinforcements.
Suppression: British employed brutal reprisals—executions, confiscations, villages burnt; by June 1858 organized resistance largely crushed, though skirmishes continued till 1859.
Fun Facts
Bahadur Shah Zafar’s poetry from Rangoon prison later became iconic in Urdu literature.
Rani Lakshmibai reportedly leapt from her fort on horseback with her adopted son tied to her back.
Kunwar Singh is said to have severed his wounded arm and offered it to the Ganga.
The siege of Lucknow Residency is one of the most documented episodes of colonial India.
Mains Key Points
The revolt was not a single movement but a series of regional uprisings connected by common grievances.
Leadership was diverse — sepoys, princes, zamindars, peasants, religious leaders — but lacked coordination.
Despite failure, it represented the first broad attempt to overthrow British rule.
Its legacy inspired later nationalist movements with memories of sacrifice and unity.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Meerut → starting point (10 May 1857).
Bahadur Shah Zafar → symbolic emperor, exiled to Rangoon.
Kunwar Singh → Jagdishpur, fought at 80 years of age.
Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah → called the 'Lighthouse of Rebellion'.
Tantia Tope → guerrilla warfare till 1859.
Nature of the Revolt of 1857
Key Point
Historians differ on whether the revolt was a mere sepoy mutiny, a civil rebellion, or the first war of Indian independence. In reality, it combined military mutiny, civil uprising, and nationalist elements.
Historians differ on whether the revolt was a mere sepoy mutiny, a civil rebellion, or the first war of Indian independence. In reality, it combined military mutiny, civil uprising, and nationalist elements.
Detailed Notes (8 points)
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British View (official): Revolt described as a 'Sepoy Mutiny', limited to discontent among Indian soldiers.
Nationalist View: Indian historians (V.D. Savarkar, R.C. Majumdar, S.N. Sen) called it the 'First War of Independence'.
Marxist View: Saw revolt as a combination of feudal discontent and peasant uprisings against colonial exploitation.
Regional Variations: Strong in north & central India (UP, Bihar, MP, Delhi), weak in Punjab, south and coastal regions.
Leaders: Sepoys, princes (Nana Saheb, Rani Lakshmibai), zamindars, peasants, tribal groups, and religious leaders contributed.
Unity: Hindus and Muslims often fought together (e.g., Delhi, Lucknow, Bareilly) under common grievances.
Limitations: No central leadership, limited modern ideology, weak communication, confined largely to north India.
Legacy: Despite failure, it became the inspiration for later nationalists who saw it as a heroic anti-colonial struggle.
Interpretations of 1857 Revolt
| Interpretation | Supporters | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Sepoy Mutiny | British historians (Kaye, Malleson) | Purely a military revolt, no popular support |
| First War of Independence | V.D. Savarkar, S.N. Sen | A national uprising against foreign rule |
| Civil Rebellion | R.C. Majumdar | Mainly feudal and regional in nature |
| Peasant-Feudal Uprising | Marxist historians | Peasants, zamindars and sepoys united against colonial exploitation |
| Composite Struggle | Modern view | Blend of military mutiny, civil rebellion, proto-nationalist sentiment |
Fun Facts
Karl Marx described the revolt as a 'national revolt' in his articles for the New York Tribune.
British Parliament debated whether to call it 'Sepoy Mutiny' or 'Indian Insurrection'.
In 1957, centenary celebrations in India officially termed it the 'First War of Independence'.
Mains Key Points
The revolt defies a single label — it was at once a sepoy mutiny, a civil rebellion, and an anti-colonial struggle.
Its nature varied across regions: nationalist symbolism in Delhi, peasant anger in Awadh, feudal loyalties in Central India.
Historiographical debates reflect evolving understandings of nationalism and colonialism.
In sum, 1857 was the first major expression of Indian resistance combining multiple strands of opposition to British rule.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Term 'First War of Independence' popularized by V.D. Savarkar (1909).
R.C. Majumdar considered it mainly a sepoy-cum-feudal rebellion.
Marxist historians emphasized agrarian and class factors.
Modern consensus: a complex mixture of mutiny, rebellion, and proto-nationalism.
Causes of Failure of the Revolt of 1857
Key Point
Despite its intensity and wide spread, the Revolt of 1857 ultimately failed due to lack of unity, leadership, resources, and modern organization, allowing the British to suppress it systematically.
Despite its intensity and wide spread, the Revolt of 1857 ultimately failed due to lack of unity, leadership, resources, and modern organization, allowing the British to suppress it systematically.
Detailed Notes (9 points)
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Lack of Unity: No common national identity; Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, and regional rulers often had divergent interests.
Absence of Central Leadership: Leaders like Nana Saheb, Rani Lakshmibai, Kunwar Singh were brave but regional, no pan-India coordination.
Limited Geography: Revolt strong in North and Central India, weak or absent in South, Punjab, Bengal, and coastal areas.
Poor Military Resources: Sepoys used outdated weapons compared to British modern rifles and artillery.
No Clear Ideology: Revolt was driven by grievances (land, religion, army policies) but lacked a coherent political vision for the future.
Support to British: Many Indian princes (Hyderabad, Kashmir, Patiala, Gwalior’s Scindia, Nepalese rulers) supported British.
Superior British Organization: Efficient communication (telegraph, railways) and reinforcements from Europe gave British advantage.
Lack of Mass Peasant Support in Some Areas: While peasants joined in Awadh and Bihar, in other regions masses remained passive.
Leadership Rivalries: Princes and zamindars often acted for self-interest rather than collective struggle.
Major Causes of Failure
| Cause | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Lack of unity | Different groups had conflicting interests, no national identity |
| Weak leadership | No single central leader, only regional heroes |
| Geographical limits | Confined to North and Central India |
| Inferior arms | Sepoys lacked modern weapons, British had advanced artillery |
| No clear ideology | No unified vision for post-British India |
| Indian allies to British | Many princes, landlords supported British |
| British superiority | Better organization, telegraph, railways, reinforcements |
| Limited mass base | Peasants and tribes joined selectively, not uniformly |
Fun Facts
British rewarded loyal princes with titles, lands, and privileges after 1857.
Telegraph wires were often cut by rebels but quickly repaired by the British.
Many British officers described Rani Lakshmibai as the 'best man among the rebels'.
Mains Key Points
1857 failed mainly due to absence of unity, leadership, and vision — it was premature as a nationalist war.
Showed courage and resistance but remained fragmented across regions.
Its suppression strengthened British Raj but also sowed seeds of later organized nationalism.
Reveals how structural weaknesses (regionalism, feudal interests) delayed India’s collective struggle for independence.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Revolt failed due to lack of unity, central leadership, and modern weapons.
Scindias of Gwalior, Nizam of Hyderabad, and rulers of Patiala supported British.
British advantage: telegraph & railways helped quick troop movements.
Rani Lakshmibai, Kunwar Singh, Nana Saheb fought bravely but regionally.
Consequences of the Revolt of 1857
Key Point
Though the Revolt of 1857 failed militarily, it had far-reaching political, administrative, economic, and socio-cultural consequences, shaping the course of Indian history.
Though the Revolt of 1857 failed militarily, it had far-reaching political, administrative, economic, and socio-cultural consequences, shaping the course of Indian history.
Detailed Notes (9 points)
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End of Company Rule: East India Company was abolished by the Government of India Act, 1858.
Beginning of Crown’s Rule: Governance transferred directly to the British Crown; Secretary of State for India created in London.
Policy of Divide and Rule: Strengthened communal, caste, regional divisions to prevent united revolts.
Reorganisation of Army: Ratio of Europeans to Indians increased; Indians kept out of artillery and strategic posts.
Loyal Princes Strengthened: Princely states were guaranteed protection; Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned.
Land and Revenue Policy: Zamindars and landlords who supported British were rewarded; peasants continued exploitation.
Racial Divide Deepened: British became more aloof, distrustful, and racially discriminatory toward Indians.
Rise of National Consciousness: Despite failure, revolt became a symbol of resistance and inspired later nationalist movements.
Socio-Cultural Impact: Strengthened social reform and modernization movements; also reinforced conservative revival in some quarters.
Major Consequences of 1857 Revolt
| Aspect | Impact |
|---|---|
| Political | End of Company rule; beginning of Crown rule |
| Administrative | Secretary of State for India; Viceroy replaced Governor-General |
| Military | Reorganisation of army; Europeans given dominance |
| Princely States | Doctrine of Lapse withdrawn; loyal princes rewarded |
| Economic | Peasants remained exploited; zamindars loyal to British gained |
| Social | Racial discrimination increased; reform movements gained strength |
| Nationalist | Symbol of resistance; inspired later freedom struggle |
Fun Facts
Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858) promised religious tolerance and equal treatment — but rarely practiced in reality.
British became more cautious about interfering in religious and social customs after 1857.
1857 Revolt is often called the 'First War of Indian Independence' by Indian historians, but 'Sepoy Mutiny' by many British accounts.
Mains Key Points
The Revolt marked a turning point — direct Crown rule replaced Company rule.
Reorganisation of army ensured British dominance but reduced Indian trust.
Though suppressed, it became a psychological blow to colonial arrogance.
Its legacy lived on as a symbol of resistance that later nationalists invoked.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Government of India Act, 1858 → Ended Company rule, started Crown’s rule.
First Viceroy of India = Lord Canning.
Doctrine of Lapse was officially withdrawn after 1857.
Indian soldiers excluded from artillery and key strategic posts.
Comparison & Timeline of the Revolt of 1857
Key Point
The Revolt of 1857 combined multiple causes, leaders, and regional uprisings, and though suppressed, its consequences shaped India’s future. A timeline helps to understand the sequence of key events.
The Revolt of 1857 combined multiple causes, leaders, and regional uprisings, and though suppressed, its consequences shaped India’s future. A timeline helps to understand the sequence of key events.
Comparative Summary of the Revolt of 1857
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Causes | Political annexations (Doctrine of Lapse), economic exploitation, military grievances, social-religious fears (greased cartridges). |
| Leaders | Bahadur Shah II (Delhi), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Nana Saheb (Kanpur), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Kunwar Singh (Bihar), Khan Bahadur (Bareilly), Tantia Tope (Kanpur). |
| Spread | Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bihar, Bareilly, Central India, but limited in Punjab, Bombay, Madras, Bengal. Some princely states and groups (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Madras Army) remained loyal to the British. |
| Consequences | End of Company rule, beginning of Crown rule (1858), army reorganisation, Doctrine of Lapse abolished, communal & regional divisions exploited, rise of nationalist consciousness. |
Timeline of the Revolt of 1857
| Date/Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 29 March 1857 | Mangal Pandey attacked British officers at Barrackpore, triggering unrest. |
| 10 May 1857 | Meerut: Sepoys revolted, killed British officers, marched to Delhi. |
| 11 May 1857 | Delhi captured; Bahadur Shah II declared symbolic emperor. |
| June 1857 | Kanpur revolt under Nana Saheb; Satichaura Ghat massacre. |
| June 1857 | Lucknow revolt under Begum Hazrat Mahal; Residency besieged. |
| June 1857 | Jhansi uprising under Rani Lakshmibai; fierce battles against British. |
| July 1857 | Kunwar Singh led revolt in Bihar. |
| Nov 1857 | Tantia Tope joined revolt; guerrilla warfare in Central India. |
| March 1858 | British recaptured Lucknow. |
| June 1858 | Rani Lakshmibai killed in battle at Gwalior. |
| July 1858 | Revolt officially suppressed; British regained full control. |
| 1 Nov 1858 | Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: End of Company rule, beginning of Crown rule. |
Fun Facts
The revolt began on a Sunday (10 May 1857), surprising British officers at church.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was 82 years old when declared emperor by rebels.
Queen Victoria’s Proclamation promised religious freedom — but British racial discrimination only increased.
Mains Key Points
Revolt was a culmination of accumulated grievances — political, economic, social, military.
Though limited geographically and socially, it marked the first major challenge to colonial rule.
The timeline shows how leadership was fragmented, causing lack of coordination.
Its legacy lies in creating a memory of united resistance that fueled later nationalism.
Prelims Strategy Tips
First spark → Mangal Pandey at Barrackpore (29 March 1857).
Immediate outbreak → Meerut (10 May 1857).
Bahadur Shah II proclaimed Emperor at Delhi (11 May 1857).
Queen Victoria’s Proclamation → 1 Nov 1858.
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