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Advent of Europeans in India
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Decline of the Mughal Empire
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3
Emergence of Regional States
11 topics
4
Expansion and Consolidation of British Power
23 topics
5
British Government & Economic Policies (1757-1857)
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Social Reform Movements
24 topics
7
People’s Resistance before 1857
13 topics
8
The revolt of 1857
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9
Growth of Nationalism and Moderate Phase of Congress
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10
British Administration in India
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11
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
6 topics
12
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
8 topics
13
India’s Response to First World War and Home Rule Movement
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14
Emergence of Gandhi
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Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
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16
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities
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Struggle For Swaraj: 1928-1935
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Period from 1935-42
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Period from 1942-47
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Chapter 12: First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
Chapter Test8 topics•Estimated reading: 24 minutes
First Phase of Revolutionary Nationalism (1907–1917): Genesis, Methods, and Legacy
Key Point
The first phase of revolutionary nationalism (1907–1917) marked a decisive shift from open agitation to secret armed resistance . It was a violent reaction to the failure of the Moderates, the collapse of Swadeshi due to fierce repression, and the Surat Split (1907). Inspired by international anti-imperial movements, groups like Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar utilized political assassinations and dacoities to challenge British authority and inspire youth sacrifice.
The first phase of revolutionary nationalism (1907–1917) marked a decisive shift from open agitation to secret armed resistance . It was a violent reaction to the failure of the Moderates, the collapse of Swadeshi due to fierce repression, and the Surat Split (1907). Inspired by international anti-imperial movements, groups like Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar utilized political assassinations and dacoities to challenge British authority and inspire youth sacrifice.
Detailed Notes (18 points)
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I. Genesis and Causes of Revolutionary Rise:
Vacuum in Mainstream Politics: The movement emerged precisely when the Extremists lost ground and the Swadeshi movement weakened due to severe Government repression and the organizational fracture caused by the Surat Split (1907). Constitutional and open mass agitation appeared ineffective.
Youth Frustration: A large section of the educated middle and lower-middle-class youth were denied political rights, educational opportunities, and employment, leading to deep anger and desperation.
International Inspiration: Key global events shattered the myth of Western invincibility, including the Russian Revolution of 1905 , the Japanese victory over Russia (1905) , and the ongoing nationalist struggles in Ireland and Turkey.
Ideological Influence: Revolutionaries drew inspiration from Hindu nationalism articulated in the writings of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (*Anandamath*, 'Bande Mataram') and the calls for active resistance by leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh and Tilak.
II. Key Centres and Organisations:
Bengal (The Cradle): Bengal was the epicenter, home to the two major organizations:
- Anushilan Samiti (1902): Founded by Pramathanath Mitra (P. Mitra) in Calcutta. Its massive eastern wing, the Dacca Anushilan Samiti (led by Pulin Das ), established over 500 branches.
- Jugantar Group (1906): Formed by Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta . It actively published the revolutionary weekly Jugantar , openly advocating for violent revolt.
Maharashtra: Revolutionary activity was initially led by the Chapekar Brothers. Later, V.D. Savarkar founded the secret society Mitra Mela (1899), which was reorganized as Abhinav Bharat in 1904.
Diaspora Support: Support was crucial from Indians abroad, notably Shyamji Krishna Varma (who established India House in London), Madam Bhikaji Cama (who unfurled the flag in Stuttgart, 1907), and the later formation of the Ghadar Party in America.
III. Activities, Conspiracies, and Suppression:
Methods: Activities included political assassinations of British officials, dacoities (called 'Swadeshi dacoities') to raise funds, bomb-making training, and the circulation of prohibited literature.
Muzaffarpur Bomb Case (1908): Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki 's attempt to kill Judge Kingsford, which led to Khudiram’s execution at 18 (making him a martyr) and Prafulla Chaki’s suicide.
Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908–09): Police raid on the Jugantar bomb factory in Manicktolla led to the arrest of Barindra Ghosh and Aurobindo Ghosh (later acquitted). The case exposed the revolutionary underground.
Howrah–Sibpur Conspiracy (1910–11): Exposed the attempt by revolutionaries to build links with the working class in industrial areas.
Indo-German Conspiracy (1915): The most ambitious plan of this phase. Led by Bagha Jatin (Jatindranath Mukherjee) , it aimed to land German arms on the Orissa coast during World War I. The plot failed when Jatin was martyred in the Balasore gunfight.
Government Repression: The British countered with repressive laws like the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) and the Indian Press Act (1910), intensifying surveillance and censorship.
Major Revolutionary Cases in Bengal
| Year | Case/Incident | Key Figures | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1905 | Formation of Anushilan Samiti | Jatindranath Banerjee, P. Mitra | Spread rapidly in Bengal |
| 1906 | Jugantar group formed | Barindra Ghosh, Ullaskar Datta | Engaged in bomb-making |
| 1908 | Muzaffarpur Bombing | Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki | Khudiram executed, Prafulla committed suicide |
| 1908–09 | Alipore Conspiracy Case | Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Ghosh | Aurobindo acquitted, Barindra sentenced |
| 1915 | Indo-German Conspiracy | Bagha Jatin, German agents | Jatin martyred in Balasore gunfight |
Fun Facts
Khudiram Bose’s smiling face at the gallows became a legendary symbol that inspired patriotic songs.
Revolutionaries often learned bomb-making from studying manuals related to the French and Russian revolutionary movements .
The Muzaffarpur attack accidentally killed the wives of a European barrister instead of Judge Kingsford.
Mains Key Points
Ideological Response: The revolutionary phase represented the ultimate disillusionment with the utility of the 'Constitutional' approach and a decisive shift towards direct action and armed resistance.
Nature of Resistance: It was characterized by individual heroism and self-sacrifice aimed at retaliating against British repression and injecting fear into the bureaucracy, rather than mass political mobilization (which was their inherent weakness).
Long-Term Legacy: Despite being suppressed by 1917, the sacrifices made by the revolutionaries, symbolized by figures like Khudiram Bose and Bagha Jatin, kept the spirit of militant nationalism alive and directly inspired later groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in the 1920s.
British Strategy: The British successfully used the revolutionary violence as a pretext (the 'stick' component of the 'carrot and stick' policy) to launch a general wave of suppression against all forms of nationalism (including Moderates and Extremists) during this period.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Khudiram Bose → executed at 18 after Muzaffarpur Bomb Case (1908) .
Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908–09) → Aurobindo acquitted , Barindra convicted.
Bagha Jatin died in Balasore gun battle (1915) during Indo-German Conspiracy .
Abhinav Bharat was founded by V.D. Savarkar in Maharashtra.
Madam Bhikaji Cama unfurled the flag in Stuttgart (1907) .
Revolutionary Activities in Bengal (1905–1917): The Cradle of Armed Resistance
Key Point
Bengal was the cradle of revolutionary nationalism during the first phase of armed resistance (1905–1917), emerging from the vacuum left by the collapse of the Swadeshi movement . Organisations like Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar systematically organized assassinations, dacoities , and underground networks. Despite brutal British repression , Bengal’s revolutionaries, through their acts of individual sacrifice , kept the spirit of militant nationalism alive and inspired future movements across India and abroad.
Bengal was the cradle of revolutionary nationalism during the first phase of armed resistance (1905–1917), emerging from the vacuum left by the collapse of the Swadeshi movement . Organisations like Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar systematically organized assassinations, dacoities , and underground networks. Despite brutal British repression , Bengal’s revolutionaries, through their acts of individual sacrifice , kept the spirit of militant nationalism alive and inspired future movements across India and abroad.
Detailed Notes (16 points)
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I. Organisation and Ideology:
Rise of Secret Societies: The two most pivotal organizations were the Anushilan Samiti , founded in Calcutta by Pramathanath Mitra , and the Jugantar Group , primarily led by Barindra Ghosh . These were highly structured, secretive groups.
Membership and Training: The base consisted largely of educated youth from middle and lower-middle classes who were disillusioned with mainstream politics. They received extensive training in physical fitness, martial arts (wrestling, swordplay) , and bomb-making to prepare for guerrilla warfare.
Ideological Inspiration: The struggle was fueled by cultural nationalism: writings of Aurobindo Ghosh (in the *Bande Mataram* journal), the call for armed struggle in Bankim Chandra’s *Anandamath* , and Yogic philosophy that stressed self-sacrifice.
II. Methods and Key Conspiracies:
Early Actions: The Dacca Anushilan Samiti (a major branch) initiated actions by carrying out targeted assassinations of police informers and oppressive British officials , which gained wide notoriety.
Funding (Swadeshi Dacoities): Revolutionaries conducted armed robberies (termed ‘Swadeshi dacoities’) to fund their activities, specifically targeting rich loyalists and government treasuries, thereby justifying their actions as being for the nation's cause.
Muzaffarpur Bomb Case (1908): A landmark event where Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill the repressive Judge Kingsford. Although the target survived, the incident showcased daring; Khudiram was executed at 18 , becoming a powerful symbol of martyrdom.
Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908–09): This followed a police raid on Jugantar’s Manicktolla bomb factory . It led to the arrest of Barindra Ghosh and others. Aurobindo Ghosh was also tried but acquitted (following C.R. Das’s defense), after which he retired from politics.
Howrah–Sibpur Conspiracy Case (1910–11): This case was significant as it exposed the explicit attempts by revolutionaries to build political links with workers in Calcutta’s industrial areas , demonstrating a nascent effort to broaden the movement's social base.
Bagha Jatin & Indo-German Conspiracy (1915): Bagha Jatin (Jatindranath Mukherjee) emerged as a charismatic pan-Bengal leader. He organized secret societies and built vital connections with German agents during WWI. The plan to land German arms on the Orissa coast (Indo-German Conspiracy) failed, resulting in Jatin’s martyrdom at Balasore.
III. Suppression and Legacy:
British Repression: The government applied extreme force, enacting harsh measures like the Press Act (1910) , widespread arrests, deportations, and intense surveillance by the newly formed Intelligence Bureau (IB) .
Role of Press: Revolutionary ideas were disseminated through influential papers like Jugantar, Sandhya, and Bande Mataram , which faced immediate bans and confiscations.
Long-Term Impact: The movement’s greatest legacy was its inspirational value. It kept the spirit of militant nationalism alive, directly influencing later groups like the Ghadar Movement in Punjab and the HSRA in the 1920s.
Women in Revolution: The Bengal tradition later inspired women like Bina Das and Pritilata Waddedar (though slightly later), who continued the legacy of armed resistance, showcasing its enduring ideological appeal.
Major Revolutionary Cases in Bengal
| Year | Case/Incident | Key Figures | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1905 | Formation of Anushilan Samiti | Jatindranath Banerjee, Pramathanath Mitra | Spread rapidly in Bengal |
| 1906 | Jugantar group formed | Barindra Ghosh, Ullaskar Datta | Engaged in bomb-making |
| 1908 | Muzaffarpur Bombing | Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki | Khudiram executed , Prafulla committed suicide |
| 1908–09 | Alipore Conspiracy Case | Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Ghosh | Aurobindo acquitted, Barindra sentenced |
| 1910–11 | Howrah–Sibpur Conspiracy | Workers and revolutionaries | Crackdown on industrial revolutionary links |
| 1915 | Indo-German Conspiracy | Bagha Jatin, German agents | Jatin martyred in Balasore gunfight |
Fun Facts
Khudiram Bose’s smiling face at the gallows became legendary and inspired patriotic songs.
Revolutionaries often used religious festivals like Durga Puja as cover for secret meetings.
Jugantar members experimented with crude bombs using instructions from European revolutionary manuals.
Mains Key Points
Bengal was the stronghold of revolutionary terrorism, marked by secret societies, targeted assassinations , and bomb plots.
The movement represented the anger of disillusioned educated youth who found moderate politics ineffective and sought immediate revenge.
Key incidents like the Muzaffarpur Bombing and Alipore Conspiracy became powerful symbols of sacrifice and defiance , which resonated nationally.
Despite severe repression, Bengal revolutionaries kept the spirit of militant nationalism alive and inspired future groups across India and abroad (e.g., Ghadar, HSRA).
Prelims Strategy Tips
Khudiram Bose → executed at 18 after Muzaffarpur Bomb Case (1908) .
Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908–09) → Aurobindo acquitted , Barindra convicted.
Bagha Jatin died in Balasore gun battle (1915) during Indo-German Conspiracy .
Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were main revolutionary groups in Bengal.
Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra (1897–1917): Ideology and Global Links
Key Point
Maharashtra was a crucial, pioneering centre of revolutionary nationalism, distinct for its early start and strong global connections. Beginning with the retaliatory assassination of British officials by the Chapekar Brothers (1897) , the movement was institutionalized by V.D. Savarkar through the Abhinav Bharat Society . It provided the ideological blueprint for complete independence and connected the Indian struggle to international revolutionary networks like India House in London.
Maharashtra was a crucial, pioneering centre of revolutionary nationalism, distinct for its early start and strong global connections. Beginning with the retaliatory assassination of British officials by the Chapekar Brothers (1897) , the movement was institutionalized by V.D. Savarkar through the Abhinav Bharat Society . It provided the ideological blueprint for complete independence and connected the Indian struggle to international revolutionary networks like India House in London.
Detailed Notes (13 points)
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I. Genesis and Organisational Growth:
Early Spark (1897): The movement started with the first political assassination of the revolutionary phase. The Chapekar Brothers (Damodar, Balkrishna, and Vasudev) assassinated Rand (Plague Commissioner of Pune) and Lt. Ayerst , directly retaliating against high-handed and oppressive plague measures.
Mitra Mela (1899): Founded by V.D. Savarkar in Nashik. This secret society focused on promoting militant nationalism, armed training , and the circulation of revolutionary literature.
Abhinav Bharat Society (1904): Formed by V.D. Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Savarkar , evolving from Mitra Mela. It was formally structured as a secret society inspired by Giuseppe Mazzini’s Young Italy, explicitly seeking complete independence through armed struggle.
Cultural Mobilisation: Revolutionary propaganda was complemented by the cultural awakening created by Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals , which mobilized people on patriotic lines and provided cover for political activities.
II. Global Links and Ideological Contribution:
London Connection (India House): V.D. Savarkar moved to London in 1906 , joining India House (founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma ). This made Maharashtra’s movement intrinsically linked to global anti-British activities.
Literary and Ideological Blueprint: Savarkar authored 'The First War of Independence (1857)', portraying the 1857 Revolt not as a mutiny but as a national struggle for independence. He also circulated manuals on bomb-making and firearms.
Martyrdom Abroad: India House became a training hub for revolutionaries like Madan Lal Dhingra , who assassinated Sir Curzon Wyllie (Political Aide-de-Camp) in London in 1909 . Dhingra’s fearless execution inspired revolutionaries worldwide.
III. Suppression and Legacy:
Nasik Conspiracy Case (1909): This key incident occurred when Abhinav Bharat members assassinated A.M.T. Jackson, the Collector of Nashik. The subsequent crackdown exposed the Abhinav Bharat network.
Savarkar’s Imprisonment: The Nasik Conspiracy led to the arrest and extradition of V.D. Savarkar from London in 1910. He was subsequently Transported for life to the Cellular Jail in Andamans in 1911.
Legacy: Maharashtra’s revolutionaries established the core ideological foundation of militant nationalism (explicit demand for complete independence, rather than mere Swaraj). Despite severe suppression and the loss of key leaders by 1911, the organizational drive and ideological clarity profoundly influenced future armed groups, including the HSRA and Bhagat Singh in the 1920s.
Major Revolutionary Events in Maharashtra
| Year | Event | Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1897 | Chapekar Brothers’ Assassination | Killed Rand & Ayerst in Pune during plague epidemic |
| 1899 | Formation of Mitra Mela | Founded by V.D. Savarkar ; secret society for armed struggle |
| 1904 | Abhinav Bharat founded | Savarkar brothers ; inspired by Mazzini’s Young Italy |
| 1909 | Madan Lal Dhingra Assassination | Killed Curzon Wyllie in London; executed |
| 1909 | Nasik Conspiracy Case | Assassination of Collector Jackson ; crackdown on Abhinav Bharat |
| 1911 | Savarkar’s Imprisonment | Transported to Cellular Jail in Andamans |
Fun Facts
Savarkar smuggled pistols into India through biscuit tins and concealed literature in double-lined books.
Madan Lal Dhingra’s courtroom speech became legendary, inspiring revolutionaries worldwide.
The Chapekar Brothers were executed but became folk heroes in Maharashtra, demonstrating public sympathy for revolutionary actions.
Mains Key Points
Ideological Clarity: Maharashtra’s movement was distinct for its early and explicit demand for complete independence , providing the ideological foundation for subsequent militant nationalism.
Global Networking: The movement, centered around Abhinav Bharat, successfully utilized India House to connect the Indian struggle to global revolutionary movements and smuggle arms/literature.
Symbolic Retaliation: Key assassinations (Chapekar and Dhingra) served as acts of symbolic retaliation against British oppression, inspiring courage during a period of political inertia.
Impact of Repression: The Nasik Conspiracy Case exposed the network, leading to the imprisonment of key leaders like Savarkar, but the spirit of defiance remained a powerful influence on future armed groups (e.g., HSRA).
Prelims Strategy Tips
Chapekar Brothers assassinated Rand in Pune ( 1897 ).
Abhinav Bharat founded in 1904 by V.D. Savarkar .
Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Curzon Wyllie in London ( 1909 ).
Nasik Conspiracy Case (1909) led to Savarkar’s arrest and transportation to Cellular Jail .
Revolutionary Activities in Punjab (1907–1917): Agrarian Roots and Global Reach
Key Point
Punjab emerged as a unique hub of revolutionary activity, driven by deep-seated agrarian grievances and canal colony disputes rather than just urban discontent. Leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh mobilized peasants under the 'Pagri Sambhal Jatta' Movement (1907). Crucially, the Ghadr Party, formed by overseas Indians, provided this revolutionary wave a global dimension, linking the Indian struggle to the diaspora and global anti-imperial forces.
Punjab emerged as a unique hub of revolutionary activity, driven by deep-seated agrarian grievances and canal colony disputes rather than just urban discontent. Leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh mobilized peasants under the 'Pagri Sambhal Jatta' Movement (1907). Crucially, the Ghadr Party, formed by overseas Indians, provided this revolutionary wave a global dimension, linking the Indian struggle to the diaspora and global anti-imperial forces.
Detailed Notes (16 points)
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I. Agrarian Roots and Early Mobilisation:
Agrarian Discontent: Revolutionary sentiment was deeply rooted in the economic exploitation of peasants, particularly the oppressive Punjab Land Alienation Act (1900) and exploitative terms in the newly developed canal colonies.
'Pagri Sambhal Jatta' Movement (1907): This mass, anti-colonial agrarian agitation was led by Ajit Singh and Kishan Singh (Bhagat Singh’s uncle) in Lyallpur. Farmers protested severely against increased land revenue and irrigation rates, demonstrating the potential for peasant-led political action.
Early Leadership and Suppression: The British reaction was swift and harsh. Leaders Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh were promptly deported in 1907 under the Regulation III of 1818, temporarily stifling open agitation but pushing revolutionary fervor underground.
II. The Ghadar Movement: Global Dimension:
Diaspora Organisation: The most significant development was the formation of the Ghadar Party (1913) in San Francisco (USA), primarily by Sikh and Punjabi immigrants who faced severe racial discrimination and anti-immigrant laws abroad.
Leadership: Key figures included Lala Hardayal , Sohan Singh Bhakna (the founding president), and the iconic young revolutionary Kartar Singh Sarabha .
Propaganda and Goal: The party published the weekly newspaper 'Ghadar' ('Revolt') in Punjabi, Urdu, and English, which was smuggled into India. Its explicit goal was to organize an armed revolt (Ghadar) in India coinciding with the start of World War I.
Ghadar Conspiracy (1914–15): Following the Komagata Maru incident, thousands of Ghadarites returned to India to incite a revolution in the Punjab military garrisons. The plot, involving cooperation with German agents (part of the Indo-German Conspiracy), was betrayed and ruthlessly suppressed by the British.
III. Role of Press and Legacy:
Press as a Tool of Revolution: Newspapers served as critical tools for mobilization:
- 'The Tribune' (English, 1881, Amritsar): A prominent voice for nationalist views among the educated elite.
- 'Punjabee' (Urdu): Played a major role in mobilizing the general public.
- 'Ghadar': Highly effective in spreading the revolutionary ideology globally and locally, directly calling for armed action.
Suppression and Martyrdom: The movement was crushed through trials (like the Lahore Conspiracy Cases), mass arrests, and the execution of key young leaders like Kartar Singh Sarabha (1915) .
Legacy: Punjab’s revolutionary tradition, characterized by its deep peasant roots and militant diaspora support, profoundly influenced the next generation. The ideology and sacrifice of the Ghadarites directly inspired young revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh , who later revered Sarabha as his hero.
Major Revolutionary Events in Punjab
| Year | Event | Leaders/Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1900 | Punjab Land Alienation Act | Created deep discontent among peasants |
| 1907 | Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement | Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh ; anti-revenue agitation in Lyallpur |
| 1907 | Deportation of Leaders | Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai exiled for their role in agitation |
| 1913 | Formation of Ghadar Party (San Francisco) | Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Kartar Singh Sarabha |
| 1914–15 | Ghadar Conspiracy during WWI | Attempted revolt with German help; suppressed by British |
Important Newspapers in Punjab’s Revolutionary Movement
| Newspaper | Language | Role |
|---|---|---|
| The Tribune (1881) | English | Spread nationalist views; prominent paper for educated elite |
| Punjabee | Urdu | Mobilised masses with nationalist content |
| Ghadar (1913) | Punjabi/Urdu/English | Published abroad; called for armed revolt against British |
Fun Facts
The slogan 'Pagri Sambhal Jatta' became a rallying cry for peasant dignity in Punjab.
The Ghadar newspaper was often smuggled into India disguised within religious or innocent-looking books.
The Komagata Maru incident (1914) was instrumental in convincing Ghadarites to return to India for the revolt.
Mains Key Points
Agrarian Foundation: Punjab’s revolutionary wave was uniquely tied to peasant grievances (Land Alienation Act, canal rates), allowing leaders like Ajit Singh to successfully link socio-economic issues with political nationalism.
Globalisation of Struggle: The Ghadar Party provided an unparalleled example of how the Indian diaspora financed, organized, and attempted to execute a transnational armed uprising, demonstrating a globalized anti-colonial resistance model.
Role of Press: The movement extensively utilized the press, from local papers like *The Tribune* to the internationally published *Ghadar*, making them crucial instruments for ideological dissemination and mass mobilization (or mass appeal).
Legacy of Sacrifice: Despite the failure of the Ghadar Conspiracy and severe repression, the martyrdom of young leaders like Kartar Singh Sarabha created a potent symbol of defiance that profoundly inspired the second phase of revolutionary nationalism, especially Bhagat Singh.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement → 1907 , led by Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh in Lyallpur.
Ghadar Party founded in 1913 in San Francisco by Lala Hardayal.
Kartar Singh Sarabha became a key Ghadar revolutionary, hanged in 1915 .
The deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh (1907) was a key early suppression tactic.
Revolutionary Activities Abroad (1905–1917): Internationalizing the Struggle
Key Point
The first phase of revolutionary nationalism established crucial transnational networks across Europe, America, and Asia to mobilize support for independence. Organizations like India House (London), Paris Indian Society , and the formidable Ghadar Party (USA) coordinated aggressive anti-colonial propaganda , arms smuggling , and large-scale conspiracies (e.g., Indo-German), effectively internationalizing India’s struggle and linking it with global anti-imperialist forces.
The first phase of revolutionary nationalism established crucial transnational networks across Europe, America, and Asia to mobilize support for independence. Organizations like India House (London), Paris Indian Society , and the formidable Ghadar Party (USA) coordinated aggressive anti-colonial propaganda , arms smuggling , and large-scale conspiracies (e.g., Indo-German), effectively internationalizing India’s struggle and linking it with global anti-imperialist forces.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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I. Revolutionary Hubs in Europe:
India House (London, 1905): Founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma , it functioned as the primary center for Indian students and revolutionaries in the UK, providing scholarships and a platform for anti-British thought. Key members included V.D. Savarkar and Madan Lal Dhingra .
Propaganda from London: The journal 'Indian Sociologist' (by Krishna Varma) fiercely propagated anti-colonial and revolutionary views. Savarkar circulated his famous work, 'The First War of Independence (1857)' .
Iconic Assassination: Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Sir Curzon Wyllie (Political Aide-de-Camp) in London in 1909 . His execution transformed him into a powerful symbol of self-sacrifice worldwide.
Paris Indian Society: Led by Madam Bhikaji Cama and S.R. Rana after Krishna Varma moved. Madam Cama’s most significant act was unfurling the first version of the Indian national flag at the International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart (Germany, 1907) , making a powerful international statement.
Publications from Paris: Journals like 'Bande Mataram' and 'Talwar' spread the revolutionary message across continental Europe.
II. The Ghadar Movement (North America):
Formation and Base: The Ghadar Party (1913) was founded in San Francisco (USA) by Punjabi Sikh immigrants, led by Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, and Kartar Singh Sarabha , driven by racial discrimination and economic hardship abroad.
The 'Ghadar' Newspaper: Published in multiple languages (Punjabi, Urdu, English), the newspaper 'Ghadar' served as the central tool for mass mobilization among the diaspora, explicitly calling for an armed revolt in India.
WWI Conspiracy: Ghadarites launched the most comprehensive plan of the phase, the Ghadar Conspiracy , aiming for a nationwide military uprising during World War I, attempting to smuggle arms and volunteers to India.
III. War-Time Coordination and Suppression:
Berlin Committee (Indian Independence Committee, 1915): Formed in Germany during WWI by leaders like Virendranath Chattopadhyaya and Chempakaraman Pillai . It strategically collaborated with the German government for the Indo-German Conspiracy , attempting to organize simultaneous revolts and smuggle arms via routes like the Orissa coast.
Role of Diaspora: Overseas Indians played a critical financial and logistical role—raising substantial funds, recruiting volunteers, and organizing the smuggling of literature and arms back to India.
Suppression: British intelligence monitored these global networks relentlessly. Key organizations like India House were dismantled, Ghadar leaders were arrested upon arrival in India, and the Berlin Committee's conspiracies were crushed through intelligence leaks (e.g., the Lahore Conspiracy Trials ).
Major Revolutionary Organisations Abroad
| Year | Organisation | Leaders | Activities |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1905 | India House (London) | Shyamji Krishna Varma, V.D. Savarkar | Propaganda, training, assassination (Dhingra) |
| 1907 | Paris Indian Society | Madam Bhikaji Cama, S.R. Rana | Published Bande Mataram, Talwar; unfurled Indian flag |
| 1913 | Ghadar Party (San Francisco) | Lala Hardayal, Kartar Singh Sarabha | Published Ghadar newspaper; called for armed revolt |
| 1915 | Berlin Committee | Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, Chempakaraman Pillai | Indo-German Conspiracy ; attempted arms smuggling |
Important Revolutionary Newspapers Abroad
| Newspaper | Place | Language | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indian Sociologist | London | English | Founded by Krishna Varma; anti-colonial propaganda |
| Talwar | Paris | English | Published by Madam Cama; revolutionary literature |
| Ghadar | San Francisco | Punjabi, Urdu, English | Called Indians to rise in revolt against British |
Fun Facts
The 'Ghadar' newspaper was shipped secretly to India in bundles of grain and cloth.
Madam Cama’s flag unfurled in Stuttgart (1907) had 'Vande Mataram' inscribed on it.
Savarkar once smuggled pistols to India hidden in books and everyday objects.
Mains Key Points
Internationalisation: Revolutionary activities abroad successfully internationalized India’s freedom struggle , shifting the debate from a colonial administrative problem to a global anti-imperialist cause (e.g., Stuttgart 1907).
Transnational Organisation: Organizations like Ghadar and the Berlin Committee pioneered a model of transnational resistance , coordinating diaspora resources (funds, volunteers) with military planning inside India (Indo-German Conspiracy).
Ideological Outreach: Newspapers like Indian Sociologist and Ghadar were vital for ideological consolidation among overseas Indians and for smuggling revolutionary literature to inspire militants at home.
Strategic Failure: While tactically brilliant, major conspiracies (Ghadar, Indo-German) ultimately failed due to intelligence leaks and strong British counter-espionage, leading to the suppression of the movement by 1917.
Prelims Strategy Tips
India House → founded 1905 in London by Shyamji Krishna Varma .
Madam Bhikaji Cama → unfurled Indian flag at Stuttgart, 1907 .
Ghadar Party → formed 1913 in San Francisco ; newspaper 'Ghadar' .
Berlin Committee → formed 1915 ; linked with Indo-German Conspiracy .
Revolutionary Activities in South India (1905–1917): Economic Nationalism and Labour Mobilisation
Key Point
In South India , revolutionary nationalism was uniquely and closely integrated with the Swadeshi Movement and organized labour. Leaders like V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (VOC) , Subramania Siva , and Nilakanta Brahmachari mobilized people through strikes, founding Swadeshi enterprises (like the SSNC), and establishing secret revolutionary societies. This phase was characterized by a potent blend of economic challenge to the British and the use of cultural nationalism in the vernacular.
In South India , revolutionary nationalism was uniquely and closely integrated with the Swadeshi Movement and organized labour. Leaders like V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (VOC) , Subramania Siva , and Nilakanta Brahmachari mobilized people through strikes, founding Swadeshi enterprises (like the SSNC), and establishing secret revolutionary societies. This phase was characterized by a potent blend of economic challenge to the British and the use of cultural nationalism in the vernacular.
Detailed Notes (12 points)
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I. Economic Nationalism and Labour Action:
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai (VOC): A key figure in Tamil Nadu, popularly known as 'Kappalottiya Tamizhan' (The Tamil Helmsman). VOC founded the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNC) in Tuticorin (1906) as a direct economic challenge to the maritime monopoly of the British India Steam Navigation Company.
Labour Mobilisation (1908): VOC and Subramania Siva successfully led the strikes in the Coral Mills in Tuticorin against harsh British industrial policies. This event saw large-scale worker participation, marking the true beginning of organized labour resistance linked to the political struggle in South India.
Harsh Repression: VOC was subsequently sentenced to transportation for life (later reduced) and suffered brutal treatment in prison, highlighting the British fear of organized economic and labour resistance.
II. Secret Societies and Cultural Outreach:
Bharat Mata Association (1909): Founded by Nilakanta Brahmachari in the Madras Presidency. This secret society focused on recruiting youth and integrating them into revolutionary activities, showing the spread of underground methods from Bengal.
Andhra Contribution: Leaders like Harisarvottam Rao successfully mobilized students and youth in coastal Andhra. Secret societies in Andhra maintained crucial connections with the Bengal revolutionaries (e.g., Anushilan Samiti).
Cultural and Vernacular Propaganda: Revolutionaries and nationalists extensively used songs, dramas, and religious gatherings to spread nationalist and revolutionary ideas in the vernacular. The poetry of Subramania Bharati (Sudesa Geetham), often disguised as devotional poetry to avoid censorship, profoundly awakened the Tamil masses.
Integration with Extremist Ideology: The influence of national leaders was significant; Tilak’s visits to the Madras Presidency inspired youth, and his model of using Ganapati and Shivaji festivals was adopted for political mobilisation.
III. Suppression and Legacy:
British Response: The response was harsh, involving immediate imprisonment of key leaders (VOC, Subramania Siva) and the banning of nationalist newspapers such as 'India' (edited by Subramania Bharati) in 1910.
Legacy: The movement's primary legacy was its success in linking the political demand for Swaraj with economic self-reliance (SSNC) and the rights of the industrial working class. It fostered a culture of militant nationalism, which inspired future freedom fighters like Subramania Bharati and the next generation of activists.
Major Revolutionary Events in South India
| Year | Event | Leaders/Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1906 | Formation of Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (Tuticorin) | V.O. Chidambaram Pillai challenged British monopoly |
| 1908 | Tuticorin Coral Mills Strike | Led by VOC and Subramania Siva ; first major labour strike |
| 1909 | Bharat Mata Association | Formed by Nilakanta Brahmachari in Madras Presidency |
| 1910 | Suppression of nationalist press | Subramania Bharati’s paper 'India' banned by British |
Important Newspapers in South Indian Revolutionary Movement
| Newspaper/Publication | Language | Role |
|---|---|---|
| India | Tamil/English | Edited by Subramania Bharati ; spread militant nationalism |
| Swadesamitran | Tamil | Encouraged Swadeshi and boycott |
| Sudesa Geetham (songs) | Tamil | Patriotic songs by Subramania Bharati; inspired masses |
Fun Facts
VOC was popularly known as 'Kappalottiya Tamizhan' (The Tamil Helmsman) for challenging British shipping.
Subramania Bharati disguised revolutionary songs as devotional poetry to avoid censorship.
Nilakanta Brahmachari was inspired by Bengal’s Anushilan Samiti and adopted similar secret methods in Madras Presidency.
Mains Key Points
Integration of Struggles: South India’s revolutionary activities are a key example of the successful integration of Swadeshi (economic nationalism) , organized labour rights (Coral Mills strike), and political agitation.
Economic Challenge: VOC’s SSNC represented a pioneering economic challenge to the British monopoly, serving as a powerful symbol of nationalist enterprise and self-reliance in the face of colonial power.
Decentralization of Underground: The formation of the Bharat Mata Association showed the decentralization of underground revolutionary societies beyond Bengal and Maharashtra.
Cultural Mobilization: Nationalist newspapers and the vernacular poetry of Subramania Bharati were critical in awakening and mobilizing the Tamil masses, giving the movement a deep cultural and regional resonance.
Prelims Strategy Tips
VOC founded Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in 1906 .
Tuticorin Coral Mills strike (1908) → first major labour strike in South India.
Nilakanta Brahmachari formed Bharat Mata Association in 1909 .
Subramania Bharati’s newspaper 'India' was banned in 1910 .
Revolutionary Activities in Uttar Pradesh & Bihar (1907–1930): HRA to HSRA and the Socialist Shift
Key Point
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar became the operational and ideological heartlands of the second phase of revolutionary nationalism (1920s). Leaders like Sachindranath Sanyal, Ramprasad Bismil, and Chandrashekhar Azad institutionalized armed resistance through the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and later shifted towards socialist mass action with the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). The Kakori Conspiracy (1925) remains the defining event of this revolutionary wave.
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar became the operational and ideological heartlands of the second phase of revolutionary nationalism (1920s). Leaders like Sachindranath Sanyal, Ramprasad Bismil, and Chandrashekhar Azad institutionalized armed resistance through the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and later shifted towards socialist mass action with the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). The Kakori Conspiracy (1925) remains the defining event of this revolutionary wave.
Detailed Notes (19 points)
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I. Genesis, Organisation, and Ideological Shift:
Early Inspiration: The roots of the movement were laid by older revolutionaries like Sachindranath Sanyal, who was connected to the Anushilan Samiti in Bengal and helped establish secret groups in Banaras.
Formation of HRA (1924): The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was founded in Kanpur by Sanyal, Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and others.
- Goal: Its stated aim was to organize an armed revolution to establish a Federal Republic of India based on the principles of adult franchise.
- Literature: The HRA published the pamphlet 'The Revolutionary' (authored by Sanyal), which outlined their philosophy and called for revolution.
Transition to HSRA (1928): In 1928, younger leaders like Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and Sukhdev reorganized the HRA into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) at Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
- Ideological Shift: This change marked a crucial ideological shift from mere armed revolution to a commitment to Socialism, viewing the struggle not just against the British but against all forms of exploitation (rich vs. poor).
II. Key Actions and Martyrdom:
Kakori Conspiracy (1925): To fund their activities and acquire arms, HRA revolutionaries—including Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajendra Lahiri, and Roshan Singh—looted a train carrying government treasury near Kakori (Lucknow).
- Trial & Martyrdom: The subsequent Kakori Trial led to the execution of Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Lahiri, and Roshan Singh in 1927. Ashfaqulla Khan became the first Muslim revolutionary to be hanged for India’s independence struggle.
- Survival: Chandrashekhar Azad successfully escaped the manhunt and remained underground, acting as the key link in the subsequent HSRA setup.
Operational Hubs: Bihar played a critical role as a base for the movement, providing safe houses (e.g., in Patna) for leaders, facilitating revolutionary propaganda , and serving as a logistics centre for fundraising activities .
Women in Revolution: Figures like Durga Bhabhi (Durga Devi Vohra) were crucial, helping leaders like Bhagat Singh escape after the Saunders' assassination and playing a key role in fundraising for the HSRA.
III. Press, Repression, and Legacy:
Propaganda Literature: The movement utilized dedicated press and literature, including The Revolutionary pamphlet and later publications, alongside sympathetic papers like 'Pratap' (edited by Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi), which exposed colonial repression and supported the revolutionaries.
British Response: The government responded with brutal repression, including the use of special police branches in UP and Bihar, widespread arrests, and the execution of the Kakori martyrs.
Legacy:
- Symbolic Power: The Kakori martyrs became powerful household names and symbols of sacrifice, deeply motivating nationalist sentiment, especially in the Hindi heartland.
- Ideological Blueprint: The transformation from HRA to HSRA provided a template for linking the fight for national freedom with a larger socialist and anti-exploitation vision, directly influencing the political thought of the independence movement.
Major Revolutionary Events in UP & Bihar
| Year | Event | Leaders |
|---|---|---|
| 1924 | Formation of HRA (Kanpur) | Sachindranath Sanyal, Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Ch. Chatterjee |
| 1925 | Kakori Conspiracy | Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Azad, Lahiri, Roshan Singh |
| 1927 | Execution of Kakori Martyrs | Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Lahiri, Roshan Singh |
| 1928 | Reorganisation into HSRA (Delhi) | Bhagat Singh, Azad, Sukhdev |
Important Revolutionary Newspapers in UP & Bihar
| Newspaper | Language | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Pratap | Hindi | Edited by Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi ; exposed repression, supported HRA/HSRA |
| The Revolutionary (Pamphlet) | English | Published by HRA; spread ideology of armed struggle |
| Manifesto of HRA | Hindi/English | Outlined objective of establishing a federal republic of India |
Fun Facts
Ashfaqulla Khan was the first Muslim revolutionary to be hanged for India’s independence.
Ramprasad Bismil was also a poet; his famous poems inspired fellow revolutionaries.
Durga Bhabhi once disguised as Bhagat Singh’s wife to help him escape after Saunders’ assassination.
Mains Key Points
HRA to HSRA Shift: The ideological evolution represented a major step in the national movement, moving from a narrow focus on armed struggle to a broader political goal of achieving national freedom coupled with Socialist restructuring of society.
Kakori as a Turning Point: The incident highlighted both the daring and planning of the revolutionaries and the brutal repression of the British (mass execution), but cemented the martyrs' image as national heroes.
Hindi Heartland Consciousness: Revolutionary newspapers and literature ensured that the message of militant nationalism, previously concentrated in Bengal and Maharashtra, resonated deeply in the Hindi heartland (UP/Bihar).
Women's Role: The active involvement of women like Durga Bhabhi underscored the commitment and sacrifice of revolutionary families and provided vital logistical support to the underground movement.
Prelims Strategy Tips
HRA founded in 1924 by Sachindranath Sanyal and Ramprasad Bismil .
Kakori Conspiracy (1925) → involved looting of a train treasury near Lucknow.
Kakori Martyrs (1927): Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, and Roshan Singh were executed.
HSRA formed in 1928 by Bhagat Singh, Azad, and Sukhdev with a shift to socialist ideology.
Komagata Maru Incident and the Ghadar Movement: Global Resistance and Racial Exclusion
Key Point
The Komagata Maru Incident (1914) , which denied entry to 376 Indian passengers (mostly Sikhs) in Canada due to racist immigration laws, served as a critical catalyst. It galvanized the Ghadar Movement , which had already organized Indian expatriates in North America for India’s independence. These events became powerful symbols of global anti-colonial resistance and the fight against racial exclusion.
The Komagata Maru Incident (1914) , which denied entry to 376 Indian passengers (mostly Sikhs) in Canada due to racist immigration laws, served as a critical catalyst. It galvanized the Ghadar Movement , which had already organized Indian expatriates in North America for India’s independence. These events became powerful symbols of global anti-colonial resistance and the fight against racial exclusion.
Detailed Notes (14 points)
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I. The Context of Racial Exclusion:
Background: Large numbers of Punjabi, predominantly Sikh, immigrants moved to Canada and the USA in the early 20th century seeking economic opportunities, where they faced severe racial prejudice and restrictive immigration laws.
Discriminatory Laws: Canada used the 'Continuous Journey Regulation' (1908), which legally blocked Asian immigrants by demanding a direct, continuous journey from their native land—a condition nearly impossible for Indians to meet, as no direct steamship service existed.
Komagata Maru Incident (1914): The Japanese ship, chartered by Gurdit Singh (a Sikh businessman from Singapore), carried 376 Indian passengers (of whom 340 were Sikh, 24 Muslim, and 12 Hindu). They were denied entry at Vancouver Harbour for two months due to the discriminatory laws.
Budge Budge Violence: After the standoff, the ship was forced back to India. Upon arrival at Budge Budge (near Calcutta), British police attempted to arrest the passengers. Violence erupted, leading to the deaths of 19 passengers and the injury and arrest of many others.
II. The Ghadar Movement’s Response:
The Ghadar Party (1913): The party was already active in San Francisco, founded by overseas Indians like Lala Hardayal , Sohan Singh Bhakna , and Kartar Singh Sarabha . It aimed for an armed revolution in India.
Ghadar Newspaper (from 1913): Published weekly in multiple languages (Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, and English), the paper 'Ghadar' (meaning 'Revolt') fiercely spread the message of revolt among the Indian diaspora.
Catalyst for Armed Action: The Komagata Maru incident was viewed by the Ghadarites as the ultimate proof of the hypocrisy of the British Empire and the necessity of armed action. They argued that racial discrimination would only end with the end of British rule.
WWI and Ghadar Conspiracy: Ghadar leaders seized the opportunity of World War I to launch an uprising (the Indo-German Conspiracy). They called on Indians, particularly soldiers, to return home and revolt. Arms shipments were attempted with German support.
III. Suppression and Legacy:
British Suppression: British intelligence networks effectively infiltrated the Ghadar movement and foiled the conspiracy. Many Ghadar leaders were subjected to the Lahore Conspiracy Trials, leading to numerous executions and imprisonments.
Martyrdom: Young leaders like Kartar Singh Sarabha were executed in 1915 at age 19, becoming powerful martyrs for the revolutionary cause.
Legacy: Both events were seminal. The Komagata Maru incident starkly highlighted racial discrimination as a tool of imperialism, while the Ghadar Party gave the independence struggle an unprecedented global and armed dimension, fundamentally influencing the subsequent phase of revolutionary nationalism.
Key Aspects of Komagata Maru Incident
| Year | Event | Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1914 | Komagata Maru reaches Vancouver | Denied entry to 376 Indians (340 Sikh, 24 Muslim, 12 Hindu) due to racial laws |
| 1914 | Return to India (Budge Budge) | Violence erupted; 19 passengers killed by police |
| Impact | Symbol of racial discrimination and imperial hypocrisy | Galvanized Punjabi migrants and Ghadar revolutionaries |
Key Aspects of the Ghadar Movement
| Year | Event | Details |
|---|---|---|
| 1913 | Formation of Ghadar Party | Founded in San Francisco by Indian immigrants (mostly Sikh) |
| 1913 | Launch of Ghadar Newspaper | Published in Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, and English; called for revolt |
| 1915 | Indo-German Conspiracy | Attempted arms shipment to India for uprising during WWI |
| 1915 | Executions | Kartar Singh Sarabha executed at age 19 |
| Legacy | Provided global and armed dimension to the freedom struggle | Inspired future revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh |
Fun Facts
The Komagata Maru ship was originally a Japanese ship chartered by Gurdit Singh , a Sikh businessman.
The Ghadar newspaper was printed on cheap paper but circulated globally, from Canada to India.
Kartar Singh Sarabha was so young that even the British judge noted his bravery at execution.
Mains Key Points
Racial Nexus of Imperialism: Komagata Maru highlighted the link between racial discrimination in the Dominions (Canada) and colonial rule in India, exposing the hypocrisy of the British Empire.
Globalisation of Struggle: The Ghadar Party provided the first successful model of a transnational organization that mobilized the diaspora , financing and attempting to execute an armed uprising against the British from abroad.
Symbolic Retaliation: Both events, especially the Budge Budge tragedy, served as powerful rallying points, injecting revolutionary fervor and acting as a critical catalyst for direct action by Ghadarites during WWI.
Legacy: Komagata Maru and Ghadar left an enduring legacy of sacrifice, resistance, and international solidarity, profoundly influencing figures like Bhagat Singh and the subsequent revolutionary phase in Punjab.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Komagata Maru Incident → 1914 , Vancouver, ship with 376 Indians denied entry.
Budge Budge violence killed 19 passengers on return to India.
Ghadar Party founded 1913 in San Francisco ; published 'Ghadar' newspaper.
Kartar Singh Sarabha → executed in 1915 at age 19.
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