Modern History Playlist
19 chapters • 0 completed
1
Advent of Europeans in India
10 topics
2
Decline of the Mughal Empire
7 topics
3
Emergence of Regional States
11 topics
4
Expansion and Consolidation of British Power
23 topics
5
British Government & Economic Policies (1757-1857)
7 topics
6
Social Reform Movements
24 topics
7
People’s Resistance before 1857
13 topics
8
The revolt of 1857
7 topics
9
Growth of Nationalism and Moderate Phase of Congress
9 topics
10
British Administration in India
9 topics
11
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
6 topics
12
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities(1907-1917)
8 topics
13
India’s Response to First World War and Home Rule Movement
5 topics
14
Emergence of Gandhi
10 topics
15
Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement
10 topics
16
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities
8 topics
17
Struggle For Swaraj: 1928-1935
16 topics
18
Period from 1935-42
12 topics
19
Period from 1942-47
25 topics
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Chapter 7: People’s Resistance before 1857
Chapter Test13 topics•Estimated reading: 39 minutes
Background: People’s Resistance Before the Revolt of 1857 (Early Anti-Colonial Stirrings)
Key Point
Before the Revolt of 1857, India saw numerous localized resistances by peasants, tribals, soldiers, and dispossessed rulers against British policies, revenue demands, and socio-cultural interference. These were the seeds of anti-colonial struggle , proving that British rule was never fully accepted.
Before the Revolt of 1857, India saw numerous localized resistances by peasants, tribals, soldiers, and dispossessed rulers against British policies, revenue demands, and socio-cultural interference. These were the seeds of anti-colonial struggle , proving that British rule was never fully accepted.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Timeline & Context: The period (1757-1857) saw the East India Company rapidly seizing control. Their aggressive expansion and imposition of new laws caused immediate, widespread discontent.
Categories of Resistance: These uprisings varied significantly, including Civil Rebellions (by former rulers/zamindars), Peasant Uprisings (against exploitation), Tribal Rebellions (for forest rights), and Sepoy Mutinies (within the army).
Core Causes (Mains Focus): The Company destroyed the traditional socio-economic order:
- Economic Ruin: New land systems (e.g., Permanent Settlement ) created a ruthless class of zamindars and moneylenders , leading to mass indebtedness and land seizure.
- Political Dispossession: Local rulers and chiefs lost their power and territory.
- Socio-Cultural Conflict: Interference through missionary activities and new military rules challenged long-held religious beliefs and customs.
Nature of Early Revolts: They were mostly spontaneous (unplanned), localized (limited regional impact), and focused on a single, specific grievance, lacking a unified national goal or modern weaponry. They aimed to restore the old system, not create a new one.
Significance: Although crushed, they established a vital tradition of resistance and provided the crucial background for the larger, more coordinated Revolt of 1857.
Major People’s Resistance before 1857 (UPSC Focus)
| Rebellion/Uprising | Leader | Region/Year | UPSC Significance (Cause/Impact) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellion | Majnu Shah, local monks | Bengal (1763–1800) | Caused by famine and tax oppression; notable for the combined Hindu-Muslim participation. Literary reference: 'Anandamath' . |
| Poligar Rebellion | Kattabomman, Marudu Brothers | Tamil Nadu (1799–1801) | Resistance by local chiefs ( Poligars ) against the Company’s high revenue demands and loss of autonomy. |
| Vellore Mutiny | Indian sepoys | Vellore (1806) | The first large-scale sepoy mutiny; triggered by military rules seen as religious interference (e.g., changing turban style); a clear foreshadowing of 1857 . |
| Paika Rebellion | Bakshi Jagabandhu | Odisha (1817) | Against land settlement & dispossession of Paikas (hereditary militia); considered by some as a 'First War of Independence' . |
| Kol Uprising | Chotanagpur tribes | 1831–32 | Targeted moneylenders, zamindars , and British officials for land usurpation and exploitation. |
| Santhal Revolt | Sidhu & Kanhu | Jharkhand (1855–56) | The largest tribal uprising ; against Dikus (outsiders) and their exploitation. Led to the creation of Santhal Parganas. |
| Kittur Uprising | Rani Chennamma | Karnataka (1824) | An early women-led revolt against the British annexation policy (preceding the Doctrine of Lapse ). |
Fun Facts
Vellore Mutiny (1806) saw sepoys raise the flag of Tipu Sultan’s family inside the fort, showing they desired a return to native rule.
Santhals established their own parallel government during the 1855 revolt before being suppressed.
Rani Chennamma of Kittur is a symbol of early women resistance against the British in South India.
Mains Key Points
Pre-1857 resistance proved the widespread unpopularity and instability of the East India Company's rule, driven by deep socio-economic discontent .
They demonstrate the diversity of opposition (tribal, peasant, elite), though they suffered from a severe lack of coordination and communication.
The ultimate limitation was their localized nature and focus on immediate enemies rather than a unified challenge to the entire British state.
These movements collectively created a crucial anti-colonial consciousness that fueled the national movement decades later.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Paika Rebellion (1817) and Vellore Mutiny (1806) are mandatory for pre-1857 knowledge.
The literary source for Sanyasi-Fakir revolt is Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s ‘Anandamath’ .
The Santhal Revolt led to administrative changes: the creation of the Santhal Parganas district.
The nature of these revolts was mainly restorative (seeking to bring back the old order), a key difference from later nationalist movements.
Peasant Movements in India: Agrarian Resistance (Fighting the Landlords and Taxes)
Key Point
Peasant movements in colonial India were protests against oppressive land revenue systems, moneylenders, and exploitative landlords . They gradually evolved from local agrarian revolts into struggles linked with the Nationalist Movement .
Peasant movements in colonial India were protests against oppressive land revenue systems, moneylenders, and exploitative landlords . They gradually evolved from local agrarian revolts into struggles linked with the Nationalist Movement .
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Exploitation Triangle: Peasants were victims of three main forces: the British state (high taxes), the Zamindars (illegal rent/eviction), and the Moneylenders (*Sahukars*) (seizing land for debt).
Forced Commercialization: Peasants were often compelled to grow unprofitable cash crops like Indigo under systems like the Tinkathia System (forced cultivation on 3/20th of land, especially in Champaran).
Nature of Early Resistance: Movements like the Indigo Revolt were largely non-violent, legalistic, and specifically targeted immediate exploiters (planters or moneylenders), showing a degree of tactical restraint.
Evolution (20th Century): Agrarian issues were integrated into the national struggle. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel used Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) to achieve peasant demands (e.g., Champaran, Bardoli), marking the shift toward organized nationalism.
The Radical Phase: Post-1930s, left-wing Kisan Sabhas (Peasant Associations) led more radical movements like Tebhaga, demanding fundamental changes in land ownership.
Major Peasant Movements in India
| Movement | Region/Year | Leader(s) | UPSC Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indigo Revolt | Bengal (1859–60) | Peasant leaders; Literary support from Dinabandhu Mitra’s ‘Nil Darpan’ | Successful non-violent protest against forced indigo cultivation. Showed power of peasant unity. |
| Deccan Riots | Maharashtra (1875) | Village peasants | An anti-moneylender revolt. Peasants attacked *sahukars* and deliberately burnt debt records (bonds), leading to the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act . |
| Champaran Satyagraha | Bihar (1917) | Mahatma Gandhi | First Gandhian satyagraha in India . Successfully challenged the oppressive Tinkathia system . |
| Eka Movement | Avadh (1921–22) | Madari Pasi , local leaders | Against high rents and begar (forced labor). Later became quite radical. |
| Bardoli Satyagraha | Gujarat (1928) | Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | Successful No-Tax Movement against unfair revenue hike. Patel earned the title 'Sardar' here. |
| Tebhaga Movement | Bengal (1946–47) | Kisan Sabha, Communist leaders | Sharecroppers (Bargadars) demanded a 2/3rd share (Tebhaga) of the produce, a challenge to the traditional half-share system. |
Fun Facts
The play 'Nil Darpan' on the Indigo Revolt was so influential that its translator was jailed, highlighting the power of art in resistance.
In the Deccan Riots , peasants attacked documents, not people, showing a focused form of resistance.
The success of the Bardoli movement proved the effectiveness of Satyagraha as an economic weapon against the government.
Mains Key Points
Peasant movements exposed the inherent exploitative structure of colonial land policies and their intermediaries (Zamindars and Moneylenders).
They demonstrate the shift in leadership and ideology from spontaneous local revolts to organized, national struggles post-1920.
These movements were vital in broadening the base of the Nationalist Movement and forcing the Congress to adopt a comprehensive agrarian agenda.
They laid the foundation for post-Independence land reforms by highlighting issues like tenancy rights and abolition of Zamindari.
Prelims Strategy Tips
The Indigo Revolt is chronologically the first major post-1857 peasant revolt.
Deccan Riots are associated with the destruction of account books and the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act.
Champaran is key as Gandhi's debut in Indian politics and the end of the Tinkathia System.
Bardoli is crucial for the title of Sardar and being a model no-tax campaign.
Tribal Revolts in India: Defending the Forest and Autonomy (The Diku Challenge)
Key Point
Tribal revolts were among the earliest and most militant uprisings against British rule, landlords, moneylenders, and missionaries. They were rooted in the defense of land, forests, culture, and autonomy —their entire way of life.
Tribal revolts were among the earliest and most militant uprisings against British rule, landlords, moneylenders, and missionaries. They were rooted in the defense of land, forests, culture, and autonomy —their entire way of life.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Main Cause: Forest Laws: British Forest Policies (to exploit timber) classified forests as state property, drastically curtailing the tribals' traditional rights to practice Jhum (Shifting Cultivation) and collect forest produce.
The Diku Invasion: The entry of Dikus (a tribal term meaning 'outsiders': moneylenders, traders, contractors) led to the destruction of the communal land ownership system (Khuntkatti) and massive land alienation.
Cultural Threat: Activities of Christian Missionaries were seen as a direct attack on tribal religious beliefs and customs, causing deep resentment.
Nature and Leadership: Revolts were often highly violent and localized. They were frequently led by messianic leaders (like Birsa Munda) who claimed divine inspiration to mobilize resistance and aimed to establish an independent ‘Raj’ (e.g., Munda Raj).
Impact: The brutality of these revolts forced the British to recognize the unique status of tribal areas, leading to protective laws like the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (CNT Act).
Major Tribal Revolts in India
| Revolt | Region/Year | Leader(s) | UPSC Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kol Uprising | Chotanagpur, (1831–32) | Kol tribes | Against land transfer to outsiders (Sikhs/Muslims) who were revenue farmers. Known for its mass mobilization. |
| Santhal Hul | Rajmahal Hills, (1855–56) | Sidhu & Kanhu Murmu | The largest pre-1857 tribal rebellion, involving ~50,000 tribals. Fought the Dikus and British violently. |
| Khond Uprisings | Orissa, (1846–62) | Chakradhar Singh | Resistance against the suppression of the traditional tribal practice of Meriah (ritual sacrifice). |
| Munda Ulgulan (Great Tumult) | Chotanagpur, (1899–1900) | Birsa Munda | A messianic movement. Demanded restoration of the communal Khuntkatti system . Birsa was revered as 'Dharti Abba'. |
| Rampa Rebellion | Andhra (1922–24) | Alluri Sitarama Raju (later phase) | Against the restrictive Forest Act. Raju, a charismatic non-tribal leader, linked the movement to the Non-Cooperation Movement. |
Fun Facts
Birsa Munda created his own faith, 'Birsait', asking tribals to reject blind faith and purify themselves, blending reform with resistance.
The Santhal Hul was known for its initial success, creating a temporary state of panic among the British in the region.
The CNT Act (Chotanagpur Tenancy Act), born from these revolts, is still a vital piece of legislation protecting tribal lands today.
Mains Key Points
Tribal revolts were fundamentally cultural and identity movements , not just economic protests, aimed at protecting their autonomy and way of life.
They exposed the devastating impact of British Forest Laws and the systematic land alienation caused by the Dikus.
The use of messianic leadership indicates a high level of political consciousness, showing their will to fight for self-rule (Raj).
Although localized, they were the first groups to challenge the state's authority over natural resources, influencing later environmental and political movements.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Tribal revolts are tested on the Leader-Tribe-Region combination.
The Munda revolt's key term is Ulgulan ('Great Tumult') and the land system Khuntkatti.
Birsa Munda is often referred to as 'Dharti Abba' (Father of Earth) by his followers.
The Rampa Revolt is important for its 20th-century timing and association with a Non-Tribal Leader (Alluri Sitarama Raju).
Chuar Rebellion (1770s–1790s)
Key Point
The Chuar Rebellion was a series of uprisings in the Midnapur, Bankura, and Dhalbhum regions of Bengal against the Company’s high revenue demands and the resumption of Jagirs.
The Chuar Rebellion was a series of uprisings in the Midnapur, Bankura, and Dhalbhum regions of Bengal against the Company’s high revenue demands and the resumption of Jagirs.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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The Chuars: The term 'Chuar' was pejoratively used by outsiders for the native inhabitants of these areas, who were largely farmers, hunters, and local militia (Paiks).
Cause of Revolt: The British imposition of the Permanent Settlement (1793) led to an increase in taxes and the forceful dispossession of Chuar zamindars and their traditional land grants (Paikan lands, for militia service).
Phases of Resistance: The revolts spanned several decades (e.g., 1770s, 1798) and were led by dispossessed zamindars like Durjan Singh of Raipur and others like Jagannath Dhal.
Nature: The rebels targeted Company property, revenue offices, and the agents (like Tehsildars and new revenue farmers) responsible for the land takeover.
Significance: It represents one of the earliest socio-political upheavals in Bengal directly resulting from the Permanent Settlement and its resulting economic disruption.
Chuar Rebellion Summary
| Year/Period | Region | Leader(s) | Key Cause |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1770s–1790s | Midnapur, Bankura (Bengal) | Durjan Singh, Jagannath Dhal | New revenue demands and loss of Paikan Jagirs. |
Fun Facts
The term 'Chuar' literally means 'pig' in Bengali and was a derogatory term used to look down upon the indigenous people by the Company.
Mains Key Points
The rebellion highlights the immediate and violent resistance provoked by the Company's revenue policies, predating the more famous revolts.
It demonstrates how the destruction of traditional land rights (Paikan service tenure) led to the fusion of peasant and military discontent.
Prelims Strategy Tips
The term Chuar refers to the tribal/militia groups in Midnapur, Bengal.
The rebellion was a reaction to the Permanent Settlement and its land policies.
It combines the features of a tribal/peasant as well as a civil uprising (dispossessed Zamindars).
Ramosi Uprising (1822)
Key Point
The Ramosi Uprising occurred in the Western Ghats (Maharashtra), led by Chittur Singh in 1822, against the British administration's harsh revenue collection after the end of the Peshwa rule.
The Ramosi Uprising occurred in the Western Ghats (Maharashtra), led by Chittur Singh in 1822, against the British administration's harsh revenue collection after the end of the Peshwa rule.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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The Ramosis: The Ramosis were a hill tribe and former hereditary servants/militia of the Maratha administration, traditionally providing security in the region.
Cause of Revolt: Following the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1818) and the deposition of the Peshwa, the Ramosis were deprived of their traditional livelihood and service grants. They were particularly affected by the new, inflexible revenue demand imposed by the British.
Leadership: The revolt was initially led by Chittur Singh in 1822 and later by Umaji Naik in 1826-29, who turned to dacoity and guerrilla warfare to challenge British authority.
Method of Resistance: Ramosi bands plundered the plains, especially the property of British officials and Maratha moneylenders who collaborated with the Company, using their knowledge of the hill tracts to evade capture.
Significance: The uprising was indicative of the widespread political discontent in the Deccan region following the collapse of the Maratha power and the failure of the new British administration to secure the loyalty of former military classes.
Ramosi Uprising Summary
| Year/Period | Region | Leader(s) | Key Cause |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1822, 1826–29 | Western Ghats (Maharashtra) | Chittur Singh, Umaji Naik | Loss of traditional livelihood and harsh revenue policy after Maratha defeat. |
Fun Facts
The Ramosis' revolt was often seen by the British as mere 'dacoity' (banditry), but its leaders issued proclamations urging people to resist foreign rule.
Umaji Naik was eventually captured and hanged in Pune.
Mains Key Points
The Ramosi Uprising demonstrates the resistance of former military classes who lost their patronage base due to the collapse of native states (Marathas).
It highlights the fusion of economic grievance (loss of service land) with political loyalty to the old regime (Peshwas).
Prelims Strategy Tips
The Ramosi Uprising is associated with the Deccan and the aftermath of the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1818).
The leader was Chittur Singh.
Wahabi Movement (19th Century)
Key Point
The Wahabi Movement was an Islamic revivalist movement that evolved into a militant anti-British struggle in the 19th century, primarily focusing on social purification and political liberation.
The Wahabi Movement was an Islamic revivalist movement that evolved into a militant anti-British struggle in the 19th century, primarily focusing on social purification and political liberation.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Origin and Philosophy: Originally started as an Islamic revivalist movement by Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli (inspired by Shah Waliullah of Delhi), aiming to restore the 'purity' of Islam by opposing un-Islamic practices.
Political Shift: The movement rapidly acquired a political and militant dimension after the defeat of the Sikhs and the British annexation of Punjab. Its focus shifted to fighting the British (whom they considered infidels) for the establishment of Dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam).
Centers: The movement had a permanent base in Sittana (North-West Frontier) from where they launched military attacks, while its internal organizational centers were in places like Patna (Bihar).
Nature and Failure: The Wahabis maintained a powerful parallel government and military structure but were eventually crushed by a massive British military operation in the 1860s. Failure was due to their religious orthodoxy and inability to secure wider support.
Peasant Link: Though fundamentally a religious-political movement, it found support among the rural peasantry due to its emphasis on social equality and its opposition to the oppression of landlords and moneylenders.
Wahabi Movement Summary
| Year/Period | Region | Leader(s) | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early 19th Century | Bihar, North-West Frontier | Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli | Militant anti-British struggle; aimed to establish Dar-ul-Islam. |
Fun Facts
The British ran a massive intelligence operation and several military campaigns to neutralize the Wahabi threat, viewing them as a primary internal challenge to their rule in the 19th century.
Mains Key Points
The Wahabi Movement demonstrates the early existence of organized, pan-India, and ideologically driven resistance to British rule, contrasting with the local nature of many peasant revolts.
It highlights the attempt to fuse religious identity and political action (Jihad) against foreign dominance, providing a strong anti-colonial tradition.
Prelims Strategy Tips
The Wahabi Movement was both religious (revivalist) and militant (anti-British).
The main center was Patna (Bihar), and the military base was Sittana.
Leader: Sayyid Ahmad of Rae Bareli.
Faraizi Movement (1830s)
Key Point
The Faraizi Movement was a socio-religious reform movement among the Muslims of East Bengal that quickly transformed into a peasant struggle against the oppressive Zamindars and British authorities.
The Faraizi Movement was a socio-religious reform movement among the Muslims of East Bengal that quickly transformed into a peasant struggle against the oppressive Zamindars and British authorities.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Origin and Founder: Started by Haji Shariatullah in the 1830s. The term 'Faraizi' is derived from Faraiz, meaning obligatory duties in Islam. The movement stressed the fulfillment of these religious duties.
Religious Aspect: It aimed to purify Islamic practices among the Bengali Muslims, purging local folk customs and establishing true adherence to the tenets of Islam.
Peasant Dimension: Under Shariatullah's son, Dudu Miyan, the movement became intensely anti-landlord. Dudu Miyan declared that 'land belongs to God' and that no one had the right to levy taxes or collect rent from it.
Action: They organized a strong parallel organization with a system of appointed Khalifas (local representatives) to protect the tenants and settle disputes, providing protection from Zamindari agents and the oppressive colonial legal system.
Significance: The movement was essentially a peasant movement with a religious covering. It successfully mobilized the Muslim peasantry of East Bengal against the largely Hindu Zamindars and the British, demonstrating an early fusion of religious and economic grievances.
Faraizi Movement Summary
| Year/Period | Region | Leader(s) | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1830s–1860s | East Bengal | Haji Shariatullah, Dudu Miyan | Peasant struggle; 'Land belongs to God'; Anti-Zamindar. |
Fun Facts
The Faraizis' strong parallel organization often led to violent clashes with the Zamindars’ armed retainers (lathiyals) and the police.
The movement's success in mobilizing the peasantry along class and religious lines was a key feature in the region's later politics.
Mains Key Points
The Faraizi Movement is a classic example of a religious reform movement acquiring agrarian and anti-colonial dimensions in response to local exploitation.
Discuss the significance of Dudu Miyan's ideology ('Land belongs to God') in challenging the Permanent Settlement's legal validity and empowering the tenant class.
It foreshadowed the fusion of religious and class politics that would define the region in the 20th century.
Prelims Strategy Tips
The Faraizi Movement is associated with East Bengal (later East Pakistan/Bangladesh).
It focused on purifying Islamic religious duties (Faraiz).
The shift to an anti-landlord movement was led by Dudu Miyan.
Its central idea: 'Land belongs to God'.
Sanyasi Revolt / Leaders
Key Point
The Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1763–1800) in Bengal was led by a combined force of Hindu Sanyasis (monks) and Muslim Fakirs (wandering ascetics), showcasing early Hindu-Muslim unity in anti-colonial resistance.
The Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1763–1800) in Bengal was led by a combined force of Hindu Sanyasis (monks) and Muslim Fakirs (wandering ascetics), showcasing early Hindu-Muslim unity in anti-colonial resistance.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Sanyasi Leadership: The Sanyasi leadership mainly belonged to the Dasanami Naga order of ascetics. Key leaders included Bhawani Pathak and Devi Chaudhurani.
Fakir Leadership: The Muslim segment of the revolt was led by Fakirs under the leadership of Majnu Shah (also known as Majnum Shah) and later Chirag Ali.
Devi Chaudhurani: A notable woman leader who was romanticized by Bengali literature. She led her own band of robbers and rebels, defying Company authority.
Method of Resistance: The bands consisted of dispossessed peasants and demobilized soldiers. They raided Company factories, state treasuries, and the houses of new Zamindars, forcing the Company to deploy large military forces for suppression.
Literary Connection: The novel 'Anandamath' (1882) by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee is based on the Sanyasi Rebellion, and its theme (of the ‘Children of the Mother’) fueled the later nationalist movement.
Sanyasi-Fakir Leaders
| Leader | Affiliation | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Majnu Shah | Fakir (Muslim) | Chief leader of the Fakirs; organized attacks on Company posts. |
| Bhawani Pathak | Sanyasi (Hindu) | Prominent leader of the Hindu monks. |
| Devi Chaudhurani | Woman leader | One of the few women who commanded a significant rebel force. |
Fun Facts
The song 'Vande Mataram' (Bande Mataram), which became the rallying cry of the Indian National Movement, was originally part of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel Anandamath.
Mains Key Points
The rebellion demonstrates that the alliance between religious groups (Hindu Sanyasis and Muslim Fakirs) was a viable form of anti-colonial resistance in the 18th century.
It highlights the deep connection between famine, economic distress, and resistance following the Company's revenue policies in Bengal.
Prelims Strategy Tips
The term Sanyasi-Fakir refers to the Hindu-Muslim alliance in the revolt.
Majnu Shah was the most prominent leader.
'Anandamath' is the crucial literary source.
Early Labour Movements (Pre-1920)
Key Point
Organized labour movements began in India in the late 19th century, primarily focusing on humanitarian issues within factories, rather than political demands, under the influence of social reformers.
Organized labour movements began in India in the late 19th century, primarily focusing on humanitarian issues within factories, rather than political demands, under the influence of social reformers.
Detailed Notes (6 points)
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Context: The growth of textile and jute mills in Bombay and Calcutta created a large industrial workforce exposed to harsh working conditions, low wages, and long hours (12-16 hours a day).
Initial Leadership: Early efforts were led by philanthropists and reformers, not workers themselves. Narayan Meghaji Lokhande is considered the pioneer of the organized labor movement in India.
Bombay Millhands' Association (1890): Founded by N.M. Lokhande (often cited as the first labor association in India). It was more of a welfare association than a modern trade union, focusing on petitioning the government for better working conditions.
Focus: Early protests focused on demands for a weekly holiday (which Lokhande successfully secured in Bombay), limits on women’s and children’s working hours, and other basic welfare measures.
Government Response: The British passed early Factory Acts (1881, 1891), but these were primarily driven by pressure from Manchester industrialists in Britain (who wanted to neutralize Indian competition by raising Indian factory costs) rather than genuine humanitarian concern.
Shift to Trade Unionism (Post-WWI): The movement transitioned to organized trade unionism with the establishment of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920, marking the true beginning of modern labour politics.
Early Labour Efforts
| Association | Year | Leader | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bombay Millhands' Association | 1890 | N.M. Lokhande | The first organized labor association in India (focused on welfare). |
| Factory Act I | 1881 | Lord Ripon | First legislation (limited scope, concerned mainly with children). |
Fun Facts
N.M. Lokhande was known as the 'Father of the Labour Movement in India' and successfully persuaded the Bombay government to grant a Sunday holiday to factory workers.
Mains Key Points
Early labor movements highlight the shift from humanitarian petitioning (by reformers) to organized economic struggle (Trade Unionism post-1920).
The British legislative response (Factory Acts) reveals that colonial policy was often driven by the economic interests of the metropolitan country (Britain) rather than local worker welfare.
Prelims Strategy Tips
N.M. Lokhande is the pioneer of the labor movement in India (1890).
The Bombay Millhands' Association was the first formal labor organization.
The First Factory Act was passed in 1881.
Shree Narayana Guru and SNDP (1903)
Key Point
Shree Narayana Guru launched a powerful anti-caste movement in Kerala centered on the principle of 'One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man'. He founded the SNDP (Shree Narayana Dharma Paripalana) Yogam in 1903.
Shree Narayana Guru launched a powerful anti-caste movement in Kerala centered on the principle of 'One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man'. He founded the SNDP (Shree Narayana Dharma Paripalana) Yogam in 1903.
Detailed Notes (6 points)
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Founder and Place: Shree Narayana Guru (1856–1928) belonged to the Ezhava caste (traditionally considered untouchable) in Kerala. He was a philosopher, saint, and social reformer.
Key Principles: His philosophy was summarized as 'Oru Jathi, Oru Matham, Oru Daivam Manushyanu' (One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man), advocating for universal brotherhood and religious humanism.
Temple Entry and Consecration: He challenged Brahmanical dominance by consecrating new temples and idols (e.g., in Aruvippuram in 1888) that were accessible to the lower castes, symbolically denying the Brahmin's monopoly over ritual.
SNDP Yogam (1903): Founded to organize the Ezhava community for educational advancement and social justice. The movement provided a platform for political articulation and later became a model for social reform organisations across South India.
Literary and Educational Work: Stressed education and economic independence for the depressed classes. He authored several philosophical works in Malayalam, including Darsanamala.
Vaikom Satyagraha Link: The Guru's movement and philosophy provided the ideological and organizational groundwork for the Vaikom Satyagraha (1924), which fought for the right of low-caste people to use public roads near temples.
SNDP Yogam — Key Aspects for UPSC
| Aspect | Details | |
|---|---|---|
| Founder & Year | Shree Narayana Guru (1903) | Key Figure: Dr. Palpu was instrumental in founding the Yogam. |
| Core Slogan | 'One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man' | |
| Region | Kerala (Focused on the Ezhava caste's upliftment) | |
| Anti-Caste Method | Challenged Brahmanical monopoly by consecrating new temples (Aruvippuram). | |
| Major Impact | Provided the foundation for Vaikom Satyagraha (1924). |
Fun Facts
Shree Narayana Guru's consecration of a Shiva idol in Aruvippuram (1888) was revolutionary because he declared that the idol was dedicated to 'one without caste or religious difference'.
Mains Key Points
Analyze the uniqueness of Shree Narayana Guru’s reform: combining spiritual regeneration (new temple consecration) with the practical goal of anti-caste emancipation.
Discuss the SNDP Yogam’s crucial role in empowering the Ezhava community and laying the groundwork for later political activism in Kerala.
Contrast the Guru’s religious humanism with the rational atheism of Periyar in the South Indian anti-caste spectrum.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Shree Narayana Guru belonged to the Ezhava caste.
SNDP Yogam was founded in 1903 and is associated with Kerala.
The movement is famous for the slogan 'One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man'.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement
Key Point
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891–1956) transformed the anti-caste struggle into a modern political movement based on constitutional rights, political representation, and the philosophy of equality and self-respect.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891–1956) transformed the anti-caste struggle into a modern political movement based on constitutional rights, political representation, and the philosophy of equality and self-respect.
Detailed Notes (7 points)
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Background and Education: Born into the Mahar (untouchable) caste in Maharashtra. He was highly educated, earning doctorates from Columbia University (USA) and the London School of Economics (UK).
Key Principles: Advocated for the complete annihilation of the caste system. His movement was based on three pillars: Educate, Agitate, Organize.
Political Organizations: Founded the Independent Labour Party (1936) and the Scheduled Castes Federation (1942) to secure political rights for the depressed classes.
Literary/Journalistic Work: Started journals like Mooknayak (Leader of the Dumb) and Bahishkrit Bharat (Ostracized India) to articulate the grievances and rights of the untouchables.
Constitutional Role: Appointed Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution, ensuring the inclusion of fundamental rights, abolition of untouchability (Article 17), and provisions for reservation (affirmative action) for scheduled castes.
Poona Pact (1932): Signed with Mahatma Gandhi, Ambedkar reluctantly agreed to reserved seats for the depressed classes within the general electorate, abandoning the demand for a separate electorate.
Religious Conversion: In 1956, disappointed with the lack of social change within Hinduism, he converted to Buddhism along with hundreds of thousands of his followers, a move known as Dharma Chakra Pravartan.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar — Key Aspects for UPSC
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Key Movement | Dalit Movement (Anti-casteism, Political Rights) |
| Core Slogan | Educate, Agitate, Organize |
| Major Agreement | Poona Pact (1932) with Gandhi (Reserved seats) |
| Constitutional Role | Chairman of the Drafting Committee (Abolition of Article 17 - Untouchability) |
| Final Act | Conversion to Buddhism (1956) |
Fun Facts
Ambedkar's personal library, Rajgirh, was famously one of the largest private libraries in the world.
He was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1990.
Mains Key Points
Analyze Ambedkar's shift of the anti-caste struggle from a social issue to a political and constitutional one, emphasizing the need for separate political safeguards.
Discuss the Ambedkar-Gandhi ideological conflict (Poona Pact) regarding the method of emancipation and the future of the depressed classes within Hinduism.
Evaluate his enduring legacy in shaping modern India's commitment to social justice, affirmative action, and constitutionalism.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
The Poona Pact (1932) was signed between Ambedkar and Gandhi.
His journals: Mooknayak and Bahishkrit Bharat.
He converted to Buddhism in 1956.
The Age of Consent Act (1891)
Key Point
The Age of Consent Act of 1891 was a landmark piece of social legislation that raised the minimum age of consent (for intercourse, within marriage) for female minors from 10 to 12 years.
The Age of Consent Act of 1891 was a landmark piece of social legislation that raised the minimum age of consent (for intercourse, within marriage) for female minors from 10 to 12 years.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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Context: The Act was triggered by the infamous Rukhmabai case (1884) and championed by reformer B.M. Malabari, who tirelessly campaigned against child marriage and forced conjugal rights.
The Controversy: The Bill faced intense opposition from orthodox Hindu leaders, most notably Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who viewed it as a direct interference by the colonial state in the internal customs of Hindus.
The Reformers' Stand: Reformers, including Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Raja Rammohan Roy's followers, supported the Act, arguing that the social evils demanded state intervention if religious leaders were unwilling to act.
Governor-General: The Act was passed during the time of Lord Lansdowne.
Significance: The passage of the Act was a victory for social reformers, but the massive controversy underscored the deep conflict between social reform (state intervention) and political freedom (self-governance), polarizing the early nationalist movement.
Age of Consent Act (1891) — Key Aspects
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Year | 1891 |
| Age Raised | From 10 to 12 years |
| Key Champion | B.M. Malabari |
| Orthodox Opponent | B.G. Tilak |
| Significance | A watershed moment for legislated women's rights. |
Fun Facts
The Act's age limit was later raised to 14 by the Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sarda Act) of 1929.
Mains Key Points
Analyze the Age of Consent controversy as the first major clash between social reform and political nationalism in India, particularly highlighting the position of Tilak.
Discuss how the Act, despite its limited scope (only raising the age by 2 years), underscored the colonial state’s willingness to intervene in social customs under liberal pressure.
Evaluate the role of B.M. Malabari in using litigation and public campaigns to drive social change.
Prelims Strategy Tips
The Age of Consent Act was passed in 1891.
The age of consent was raised from 10 to 12.
The Act was vehemently opposed by B.G. Tilak.
Abolition of Sati (1829) and Social Legislation
Key Point
The Regulation XVII of 1829 abolished the practice of Sati (widow immolation) in the Bengal Presidency, marking the first major successful legal reform against a Hindu social evil in British India.
The Regulation XVII of 1829 abolished the practice of Sati (widow immolation) in the Bengal Presidency, marking the first major successful legal reform against a Hindu social evil in British India.
Detailed Notes (5 points)
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The Practice: Sati was a ritual where a Hindu widow voluntarily or forcefully immolated herself on her deceased husband's pyre. It was prevalent mainly among upper castes in parts of Bengal and Rajasthan.
Key Reformer: Raja Rammohan Roy led the decisive intellectual and public campaign against Sati, publishing pamphlets and petitions based on Hindu scriptures to prove the practice was not mandatory.
The Act: The Governor-General, Lord William Bentinck, was determined to abolish the practice, leading to the enactment of Regulation XVII of 1829, which declared Sati illegal and punishable as culpable homicide.
Orthodox Opposition: Orthodox elements, led by Raja Radhakant Deb (founder of the Dharma Sabha), organized petitions and challenged the law in the Privy Council in London, but the abolition was upheld.
Significance: The abolition was a watershed moment, demonstrating the combined power of liberal colonial administration and indigenous rational reform (Roy's efforts) in challenging deeply entrenched social customs. It set a precedent for later social legislation.
Abolition of Sati (1829) — Key Aspects
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Year | 1829 |
| Act Name | Regulation XVII |
| Governor-General | Lord William Bentinck |
| Key Reformer | Raja Rammohan Roy |
| Orthodox Opposition | Dharma Sabha (Radhakant Deb) |
Fun Facts
The initial ban applied only to the Bengal Presidency, but it was later extended to Madras and Bombay Presidencies.
Mains Key Points
Analyze the collaborative nature of the abolition, where a modernizing colonial administration worked with an indigenous rational reformer (Roy) to achieve change.
Discuss the ideological foundations of Roy's argument, which fought tradition using tradition itself, rather than solely Western appeals.
Evaluate the abolition as the starting point of major social legislation under the British, setting the tone for future reforms like widow remarriage.
Prelims Strategy Tips
Sati was abolished in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck.
The key Indian campaigner was Raja Rammohan Roy.
The Dharma Sabha was formed to oppose the abolition.
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