Biodiversity & Conservation — UPSC Environment Notes

What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity (Biological Diversity) is the incredible variety of different forms of life on Earth. This encompasses different plants, animals, micro-organisms, the genetic information they contain, and the complex ecosystems they form.

Levels of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is considered at three major interconnected levels:

1. Genetic Diversity

It refers to the variation of genes within a single species or population.

Importance: High genetic diversity is crucial for any species to maintain reproductive vitality, build resistance to diseases, and adapt to changing environmental conditions or climate change.

2. Species Diversity

A 'species' is a group of genetically similar organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Species diversity is the variety of different species within a region.

Species Richness: The absolute total count of different species in a defined area.

Species Abundance: The relative number of individuals among the different species.

3. Ecosystem Diversity

This refers to the variety of different habitats, biological communities, and ecological processes present in the biosphere, as well as the intricate variations within individual ecosystems (e.g., forests, deserts, wetlands).

Measuring Biodiversity over Spatial Scales

In 1972, ecologist Robert Whittaker introduced three terms to measure biodiversity across different geographic scales:

Alpha Diversity (Local): A measure of the diversity of species within a specific given area, single habitat, or ecosystem.

Beta Diversity (Between Habitats): A comparison of diversity between different ecosystems. It measures the change or turnover in species composition as you move from one habitat to another.

Gamma Diversity (Regional): A measure of the overall biodiversity of a large geographic region. It essentially assesses the combined total diversity of all ecosystems within that broader landscape.

Example: A Mountain Landscape

Alpha: The species diversity present strictly within one specific forest patch on the slope.

Beta: The difference in species when comparing the forest patch to an adjacent grassland patch.

Gamma: The total species diversity along the entire range of the mountain slope, combining all patches.

Extent of Biodiversity

Based on studies and global databases, the scale of life on Earth is massive, yet much of it remains undiscovered:

Global Estimate: According to a 2011 study, there are approximately 8.7 million species in the world.

Distribution: Out of these, 6.5 million species are found on land (terrestrial) and 2.2 million (about 25 percent) dwell in the ocean depths.

Identified Species: Despite this vast number, human knowledge is limited. As of 2021, the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) has officially listed only about 2.13 million species on the planet.

Significance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the life support system of our planet. Its value can be categorized into five main areas:

1. Utilitarian Benefits: It contributes directly to our material well-being and survival.

- Food: Fisheries alone account for at least 15% of the animal protein directly consumed by humans.

- Medicine: More than 70,000 different plant species are used globally in traditional and modern medicine.

2. Ecosystem Services: Nature provides free, invisible services that sustain the environment.

- Climate Regulation: Helps in mitigating climate change by contributing to the long-term sequestration of carbon (e.g., in forests and oceans).

- Cycle Regulation: Regulates crucial biogeochemical cycles like oxygen, water, and nitrogen.

- Disaster Mitigation: Protects human settlements from harmful weather conditions by acting as windbreaks and flood barriers (e.g., mangroves).

- Maintenance: Helps in natural pest control, control of soil erosion, and pollution management.

3. Ethical and Moral Values: Every species has an intrinsic value. All living beings have a fundamental right to exist on Earth alongside humans.

4. Aesthetic Value: Biodiversity enhances our appreciation and enjoyment of the environment through leisure and recreational activities, such as bird watching, wildlife safaris, and nature trailing.

5. Social Value: Biodiversity plays a crucial role in providing social benefits, such as generating employment opportunities (e.g., eco-tourism, non-timber forest products) and supporting the livelihoods and development of vulnerable rural and indigenous populations.

The 'Evil Quartet' of Biodiversity Loss

Biodiversity loss is brought about by various factors, including land-use alterations, climate shifts, and biological invasions. Jared Diamond dubbed the four major reasons for this loss as the 'Evil Quartet'.

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Destruction: Clearing forest areas for agriculture, mining, logging, urban sprawl, and highways makes entire habitats functionally unable to support their native species.

Fragmentation: Breaking a large habitat into smaller, scattered patches results in isolated species and a loss of genetic diversity, eventually leading to local extinction.

Example: According to a 2022 WWF report, 18% of the Amazon forests have been wholly lost, and another 17% are degraded, posing a massive threat to global biodiversity.

2. Over-Exploitation

Over-exploitation of biological resources by humans is a major driver of extinction.

Examples: The Steller’s Sea Cow and the Passenger Pigeon became extinct entirely due to over-hunting and over-exploitation by humans.

3. Alien Species Invasion

When alien (non-native) species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately, they can turn invasive, outcompeting native species and causing their decline or extinction.

Example: The introduction of the predatory Nile Perch into Lake Victoria (East Africa) eventually led to the extinction of more than 200 species of native Cichlid fish.

4. Co-extinctions

In nature, species are often interconnected. When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory way also perish.

Example: When a specific host fish species goes extinct, the unique parasites that depend solely on that host also face extinction.

Other Major Factors

Climate Change

Climate change has altered marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems, causing local species loss, increased diseases, and mass mortality.

Example: The Bramble Cay melomys (a small rodent) is the first mammal officially reported to have gone extinct as a direct result of anthropogenic climate change.

Pollution

Environmental pollution takes many forms and directly impacts survival rates.

Example: The decline in the House Sparrow population in India has been linked to electromagnetic radiation pollution from mobile towers, coupled with a decrease in nesting sites due to modern urban building designs.

1. Impacts on Ecosystem Stability and Services

Biodiversity is vital as it provides a natural buffer against environmental volatility and disasters.

Consequence: Biodiversity loss directly leads to a decrease in ecosystem stability, which negatively impacts the effective functioning of ecosystems and the essential services (like water purification and climate regulation) they provide.

2. Accelerated Extinction of Species

Species continue to disappear rapidly due to anthropogenic (human-caused) factors like climate change, habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, and invasive species.

Alarming Rate: Compared to the natural background extinction rate (the rate if humans weren’t around), the current extinction rate is estimated to be 1,000 to 10,000 times higher.

3. Increased Zoonotic Disease Transmission

Human population growth has led to increased land clearing for croplands and pastures.

Zoonotic Spillover: People working in cleared regions come into closer contact with wild animals, livestock, and their pathogens. The transmission of these pathogens from animals to humans is called zoonotic spillover.

Spread: Land clearance creates new transportation links from remote forests to dense urban areas, speeding up the global spread of diseases.

Fact: The origins of around 60-75% of all human infectious diseases can be traced back to zoonotic spillover.

4. More Conflict Between Humans and Wildlife

As habitats shrink, wild animals are forced to forage closer to human settlements.

Impact: This results in negative interactions, including crop and property damage, livestock depredation, physical injury, and loss of human life. This tension is a significant barrier to sustainable development.

5. Threatened Food Security and Medicinal Resources

Food: Food security will be severely hit if unsustainable agricultural practices continue to destroy the genetic diversity of crops and the populations of natural pollinators.

Medicine: The current rates of biodiversity loss threaten the foundation of both traditional medicine systems and modern pharmaceutical drug innovations, many of which rely on plant and microbial derivatives.

Biogeographic Zones of India

A biogeographic zone represents major species groupings based on shared climate, geography, and evolutionary history. India is divided into ten biogeographic zones:

1. Trans-Himalayas
2. Himalayas
3. Indian Desert
4. Semi-Arid
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. Gangetic Plains
8. North-East India
9. Islands
10. Coasts.

Zone 1: The Trans-Himalayas

This zone constitutes the high-altitude, frigid, and arid regions lying north of the Great Himalayan range.

Location & Altitude: Covers mainly Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti. The altitude ranges between 4,500 and 6,000 meters above mean sea level.

Provinces: For a more homogeneous ecosystem classification, it is divided into three provinces:
1) Himalaya-Ladakh Mountains
2) Himalaya-Tibetan Plateau
3) Trans-Himalaya Sikkim.

Flora and Fauna (Wildlife)

Flora (Vegetation): Due to extreme cold and low precipitation, the vegetation is largely a sparse alpine steppe.

Wild Sheep and Goats: This zone is famous for having the richest wild sheep and goat communities in the world.
Examples: Urial, Nayan, Marco Polo sheep, and Markhor.

Herbivores: Wild Yak, Tibetan Ass (Kiang), Tibetan Gazelle, Ibex, and Tibetan Antelope (Chiru).

Carnivores & Small Mammals: Includes apex predators like the Snow Leopard and Indian Wolf. Other distinctive carnivores include the Fox and the Pallas’s Cat (which is endemic to this area). Small mammals include the Marbled Polecat, Pika, and Marmot.

Avifauna (Birds): The region hosts a distinctive bird population, most notably the migratory Black-necked Crane.

Zone 2: The Himalayas

The Himalayan mountain range extends from west to east for over 2,000 km, acting as a massive climatic and biological barrier.

Provinces: It is divided into four provinces: North West Himalaya, West Himalaya, Central Himalaya, and East Himalaya.

Climate Variation: The West Himalaya experiences low rainfall and heavy snowfall, whereas the East Himalaya experiences heavy rainfall and snowfall only at very high altitudes.

Altitudinal Zonation of Flora

1. Lower Subtropical Foot-hills: Mixed deciduous communities merging into Chir Pine and Ban Oak.

2. Temperate Areas (below 3,500 m): Complex mixture of Maples, Walnuts, Moru, and Oak, along with conifers like Blue Pine, Fir, and Spruce.

3. Sub-alpine Area: Forest and scrub vegetation of Birch and Rhododendrons interspersed with grasslands.

Regional Fauna

Endemism is remarkably high in nearly all groups of plants and animals here.

Western Zone (Drier): Dominated by Deodars and Blue Pine. Key fauna include the Tibetan wild ass, wild goats (thar, ibex), blue sheep, antelopes (Chiru), and deer like the Hangul (Kashmir stag) and Musk deer.

Central Zone: Poor representation of large herbivores. Populations of Ibex, Markhor, and Hangul have dwindled.

Eastern Zone (Humid): Characterized by a higher tree line and dominant epiphytes (due to high humidity/rainfall). Fauna includes the Mishmi Takin, Red panda, hog badgers, and porcupines.

Zone 3: The Indian Desert

This zone spans across West Gujarat and West Rajasthan. It is widely known as the Thar Desert.

Provinces: It is divided into the Thar Desert and the Kutch Desert.

Human Impact: Parts of Punjab and Haryana were historically part of this desert, but the Green Revolution (irrigated cultivation) has drastically altered the landscape.

Flora and Fauna

Wetlands: The Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary is a critical natural freshwater lake and the largest natural wetland in the Thar Desert province.

Vegetation: Dominated by drought-resistant plants like Nagphani (cactus), acacia, babul, and specialized grasses. Prosopis cineraria (Khejri) and Salvadora oleoides are common hardy trees.

Wildlife: Unique and restricted fauna includes the Desert Fox, Desert Cat, Houbara Bustard, and specific Sand Grouse species.

Zone 4: The Semi-Arid

This zone acts as a transition area between the true desert and the denser forests, occupying around 18.5% of India's total area.

Provinces: It is divided into the Punjab Plains Region and the Gujarat Rajputana Region.

Ecological Links: It has strong biological affinities with Western Asia, Pakistan, Iran, the Middle East, and Northern Africa (e.g., African affinity in Acacia species).

Human Impact: A large portion of its natural vegetation has been cleared for agricultural expansion, urban sprawl, and industrial development.

Flora and Fauna

Vegetation: Main tree species include Acacia, Babul, Neem, Khejra, Kanju, Palas, and various thorny bushes and grasses.

Wildlife: The abundant grasses and palatable shrubs make it a prime habitat for large herbivores such as the Blackbuck, Chowsingha (Four-horned antelope), Gazelle, and Nilgai.

Zone 5: The Western Ghats (Biodiversity Hotspot)

The Western Ghats is one of India's major tropical evergreen forest regions and a globally recognized Biodiversity Hotspot. It is bounded by the coast to the west and the Deccan peninsula to the east.

Provinces: Divided into the Malabar Plains Area and the Western Ghats Mountains Area.

Endemism: About two-thirds of India's endemic plant species are confined to this region.

Flora and Fauna

Sholas: A unique ecosystem found in the Nilgiris, consisting of extensive montane grasslands interspersed with densely forested gorges of evergreen vegetation.

Exclusive/Endemic Wildlife:

- Primates: Lion-tailed Macaque and Nilgiri Langur.

- Squirrels: Subspecies of Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica) and the rare Grizzled Giant Squirrel.

- Carnivores: Malabar Civet (southern evergreen forests) and Rusty-spotted Cat.

- Ungulates: Nilgiri Tahr (found from Nilgiris to Agasthyamalai).

- Birds: Malabar Grey Hornbill.

Other Major Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole (Wild Dog), Sloth Bear, Indian Elephant, and Gaur.

Conservation of the Western Ghats

Due to massive forest loss, two high-profile committees were formed to strategize the protection of the Western Ghats:

A) Gadgil Committee Report (WGEEP):

Recommended classifying the entire Western Ghats (spread across 6 states) as an Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ).

Proposed strict prohibition on development activities like mining, thermal plants, and large housing projects.

B) Kasturirangan Committee Report (HLWG):

Reduced the proposed Eco-Sensitive Area (ESA) to 37% of the Western Ghats (roughly 60,000 square kilometers).

Sought a more pragmatic balance between environmental protection and developmental needs.

Zone 6: The Deccan Peninsula

This zone constitutes the largest area in India, amounting to about 42% of the total landmass. It covers the greater parts of Peninsular India and is characterized by Archaean rocks and extensive red and black soils.

Provinces: It is divided into five provinces: 1) Central Highlands, 2) Chota Nagpur Plateau, 3) Eastern Highlands, 4) Central Plateau, and 5) Deccan South Region.

Human Impact: A significantly large area of this zone has been altered by human activities and agriculture.

Flora and Fauna

Vegetation: Primarily dominated by deciduous forests, thorn forests, and degraded shrublands. There are also small patches of semi-evergreen forests (Eastern Ghats) and dry evergreen forests/thorn scrubs on the coastal plains of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Fauna: Widespread species include the Chital, Sambar, Nilgai, Chowsingha (Four-horned antelope), Barking Deer, and Gaur. Blackbucks are restricted to dry, open areas.

Relict Populations: Small, isolated populations of specific species still exist, such as the Elephant (Bihar-Odisha and Karnataka-Tamil Nadu borders) and the Wild Buffalo (at the junction of Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra).

Zone 7: The Gangetic Plain

This zone is one of the most fertile areas globally and supports a massive and growing human population. Due to intense economic development and agriculture, only about 3% of the Ganga Plain remains covered by natural forests.

Provinces: It is divided into two provinces: 1) Upper Gangetic Plains and 2) Lower Gangetic Plains.

Flora and Fauna

Vegetation: The original vegetation is largely gone. Surviving flora mainly includes Bamboo, Arjun, Sheesham, Bargad (Banyan), Peepal, Mahuwa, Neem, Jamun, and various grasses.

Terrestrial Fauna: Small, relict populations of Nilgai, Blackbuck, and Chinkara manage to survive in the western areas, interspersed with dense cultivation.

Aquatic Fauna: The rivers and wetlands are ecologically rich, hosting populations of Mugger crocodiles, Gharials, the highly endangered Gangetic Dolphin, and a diverse freshwater turtle community featuring over 20 species.

What is a Biodiversity Hotspot?

A Biodiversity Hotspot is a biogeographic region characterized by both exceptional levels of plant endemism (species found nowhere else) and serious levels of habitat loss.

Criteria for Qualification

Conservation International (CI) introduced two strict quantitative criteria for a region to qualify as a hotspot:

1. Endemism: It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (which is > 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics.

2. Habitat Threat: It must have lost ≥ 70% of its original native habitat (meaning 30% or less of its natural vegetation remains).

Global Significance

Around the world, 36 areas qualify as biodiversity hotspots.

Area: They represent just 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface.

Species Concentration: Despite their small area, they support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics.

Fauna: Nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species are endemic to these hotspots.

The Four Hotspots in India

Officially, four out of the 36 globally recognized Biodiversity Hotspots are present (fully or partially) in India:

1. The Himalayas: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and stretches into Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar).

2. The Western Ghats: Runs along the western coast of India (and includes Sri Lanka).

3. The Indo-Burma Region: Includes entire North-Eastern India (except Assam and Andaman group of Islands), and stretches into Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern China.

4. Sundaland: Includes the Nicobar group of Islands in India (and stretches across Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Philippines).

Geographical Extent

The Himalaya hotspot was demarcated and recognized as a separate hotspot from the Indo-Burma hotspot. It stretches in an arc over 3,000 km across Northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and the NW/NE states of India.

Key Features: It includes all of the world's mountain peaks higher than 8,000 meters, such as Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest), alongside several of the world's deepest river gorges.

Major Divisions

The region is artificially divided into two main areas based on climatic and geographical differences:

1. The Eastern Himalaya:

- Coverage: Parts of Nepal, Bhutan, NE Indian states (West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh), SE Tibet, and Northern Myanmar.

- Features: Abundant rainfall, varied climate, and lush vegetation. Crucially, it served as the biogeographic 'gateway' for much of the Indian flora and fauna.

2. The Western Himalaya:

- Coverage: Kumaon-Garhwal (Uttarakhand), NW Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Northern Pakistan.

Altitudinal Zonation of Ecosystems

The abrupt rise of the mountains from under 500 meters to over 8,000 meters creates diverse ecosystems based on altitude. As elevation increases, the climate, flora, and fauna change dramatically.

Flora and Fauna

Flora: Vegetation transitions from broad-leaved trees in the lower ranges to evergreen forests of oak and conifers, eventually giving way to alpine meadows where only ground-hugging plants survive the harsh cold.

Fauna:

- High Altitudes: The solitary Snow Leopard roams the snowy peaks, hunting Bharal (Blue Sheep) and Ibex. The charismatic Western Tragopan is also found here.

- Lower Reaches: Supports vital populations of large mammals and birds, including Tigers, Elephants, Rhinos, Wild Water Buffalo, and various species of vultures.

Geographical Extent and Area

The Indo-Burma Hotspot is one of the largest globally, covering a massive area of 23,73,000 square km across tropical Asia.

Indian Regions: It extends through the Garo and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, eastwards through Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland, and crucially includes the Andaman Islands.

International Regions: It begins at the Chittagong foothills in Bangladesh and encompasses most of Myanmar (excluding northern alpine areas), southern and western China, all of Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, the vast majority of Thailand, and a small fraction of Peninsular Malaysia.

Ecosystem Characteristics

Riverine Plains: This hotspot comprises extensive plains that are enriched with fertile alluvial soil brought down by several large Asian rivers, in addition to the Ganga and Brahmaputra systems.

Flora and Fauna

The region is a treasure trove of biodiversity, holding species found nowhere else on Earth.

Recent Mammal Discoveries: Astonishingly, six large mammal species have been discovered here in recent years. These include the large-antlered muntjac, the Annamite muntjac, the grey-shanked douc, the Annamite striped rabbit, the leaf deer, and the highly elusive saola.

Freshwater Turtles: A massive variety of freshwater turtle species are endemic to this hotspot. Tragically, most are on the verge of extinction due to relentless over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss.

Avifauna: The hotspot supports almost 1,300 different bird species. Threatened endemics include the white-eared night-heron, the grey-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.

Geographical Extent and Area

Sundaland covers the western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago, forming an arc of approximately 17,000 equatorial islands.

Indian Territory: The Nicobar Islands are the only part of India that falls under this hotspot.

Major Islands: It is dominated by two of the world's largest islands: Borneo (725,000 sq km) and Sumatra (427,300 sq km).

International Regions: It covers southern Thailand, nearly all of Malaysia, Singapore, all of Brunei, and the western half of Indonesia (including Kalimantan/Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Bali).

Flora and Ecosystem Zonation

The vegetation in Sundaland is incredibly diverse and changes drastically based on altitude and geography:

The Giant Flower: Sundaland is famous for hosting the Rafflesia, the world’s largest flower, which can measure up to one meter across.

Coastal and Lowland Areas:

- Coastlines: Sandy/rocky shores harbor beach forests, while muddy shores are lined with mangrove forests.

- Inland Swamps: Mangroves give way to massive, carbon-rich peat swamp forests.

- Lowland Rainforests: Dominated by the towering trees of the Dipterocarpaceae family.

Elevated Areas:

- Limestone/Coral Reefs: Ancient uplifted coral reefs support specialized forests tolerant of high calcium and magnesium.

- Higher Elevations: Montane forests thick with moss, lichens, and orchids.

- Subalpine: Scrubby forests dominated by rhododendrons, leading up to rocky, barren mountain peaks.

Iconic Fauna

The hotspot is a critical refuge for several highly endangered and iconic mammals.

Key Species: Orangutans, pig-tailed langurs, and the critically endangered Javan and Sumatran rhinos.

Borneo Endemics: The distinct proboscis monkey is found exclusively on the island of Borneo.

Geographical Extent and Location

The Western Ghats is a formidable mountain range extending from north to south along the western edge of the Indian peninsula.

Boundaries: It is bound by the Arabian Sea in the west, the arid Deccan Plateau in the east, and the Vindhya-Satpura ranges in the north.

States Covered: It spans across exactly six Indian coastal states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

Significance and Evolution

Global Recognition: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and UNESCO have recognized the Western Ghats as a World Heritage Site.

Evolutionary Continuity: The region possesses exceptionally rich biodiversity, aided by its complex topography, high rainfall, relative inaccessibility, and an unbroken evolutionary continuity of more than 50 million years.

Flora (Vegetation)

It is one of the major tropical evergreen forest regions in India.

Plant Endemism: Out of the roughly 15,000 flowering plant species found in India, an estimated 4,780 species are located in the Western Ghats region, highlighting its incredible plant diversity and endemism.

Fauna (Wildlife)

The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) has declared 439 species out of the 5626 recorded fauna as strictly endemic to this region.

Apex Predators: The montane tropical rain forests on these slopes shelter a variety of large animals, including tigers, black panthers, and leopards.

Endemic Primates: The southern forests are home to the Lion-tailed Macaque, a shy, arboreal (tree-dwelling) monkey.

Unique Amphibians: During the monsoon season, the bizarre-looking Pig-nosed Purple Frog (which spends most of the year underground) emerges, becoming a major biological attraction.

What is a Species?

A species is a group of organisms that share common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.

1. Keystone Species: The Ecosystem Pillars

Species that play a vital and disproportionately large role in maintaining the structure, functioning, or productivity of an ecosystem relative to their abundance.

Impact of Removal: Removing a keystone species causes a massive disruption or even the collapse of the ecosystem.

Examples:

- Beavers: Act as 'ecosystem engineers' by building dams that create and modify aquatic habitats.

- Hummingbirds: In the Patagonia Forest, they are responsible for pollinating 20% of local plantations.

- Top Predators: Tigers and wolves control herbivore populations, preventing overgrazing.

2. Indicator Species: Nature's Warning Signals

An organism (bacteria, plant, or animal) whose presence, absence, or behavior reflects the specific condition of the surrounding environment.

Significance: By monitoring these species, scientists can easily assess the health of the entire environment without complex chemical testing.

3. Flagship Species: The Conservation Ambassadors

A species selected to act as an ambassador, icon, or symbol for a defined habitat, environmental campaign, or issue. They are chosen for their public appeal to raise funds and awareness. Note: They may or may not be keystone species.

Types:

- International: Acknowledged worldwide (e.g., Giant Panda, Bengal Tiger).

- Cultural: Associated with specific human cultures (e.g., Bornean Ironwood for the Dayak people).

- Ecological: Symbolizing specific unique biodiversity (e.g., Malagasy Baobab in Madagascar).

4. Priority Species (WWF Classification)

A term used primarily by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) for conservation planning and communication. They are chosen to represent an entire ecoregion.

Criteria for Selection:

- Integral to a food chain (preventing its collapse).

- Help develop and strengthen habitats.

- Indicate a high need for conservation practices.

- Heavily exploited for commercial purposes.

- Hold high cultural significance.

1. Priority Species (WWF Clusters)

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has selected 10 specific clusters of priority species to focus its global conservation efforts:

Bears (including Giant Pandas), Big Cats (Tiger, Leopard, Cheetah), Cetaceans (Dolphins, Porpoises, Whales), Elephants, Great Apes, Marine Turtles, Rhinos, Sharks & Rays, Sturgeons (noted as great indicators of ecosystem health), and Vultures.

2. Foundation Species: The Habitat Builders

Species that play a major, primary role in creating, maintaining, or structurally defining a habitat, allowing other species to live there.

Examples:

- Corals: They produce the physical reef structure that houses thousands of marine species.

- Trees in a forest: They form the canopy and root systems that define the entire forest ecosystem.

3. Umbrella Species: The Wide Net of Conservation

Species that are selected as representatives for conservation planning. Because they typically require a large, pristine habitat to survive, protecting them automatically protects many other species that share their ecosystem.

The 'Umbrella' Effect: Conserving a Tiger requires protecting a vast forest. By doing so, all the deer, birds, and insects in that forest also benefit from the 'umbrella' of protection.

Examples: Tigers and Giant Pandas.

4. Charismatic Megafauna: The Faces of Conservation

Large animal species that possess widespread popular appeal and distinct aesthetic value.

Role in Conservation: Environmental organizations use them extensively in campaigns because they easily attract public empathy and funding.

Examples: Lions, tigers, gorillas, giant pandas, and elephants. (e.g., The WWF uses the Giant Panda as its logo).

5. Endemic Species: The Geographically Restricted

Species that are naturally restricted to a single, specific geographical area and do not occur naturally anywhere else in the world.

Significance: They are highly vulnerable to extinction if their specific habitat is destroyed.

Overview of Endemism in India

India is a megadiverse country with a significant percentage of its flora and fauna found nowhere else on Earth. The geographical isolation provided by the Himalayas in the north and the ocean on three sides has fostered unique evolutionary pathways.

Maximum Endemism: The Western Ghats show the highest level of endemism in India, followed by the Eastern Himalayas and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Statistics of Endemic Species

A large proportion of various taxonomic groups are strictly endemic to India:

Amphibians: About 62% are endemic.

Freshwater Fishes: About 53% are endemic.

Lizards: About 50% are endemic.

Reptiles: About 36% are endemic.

Flowering Plants: About 33% are endemic.

Mammals: About 10% are endemic.

What are Invasive Alien Species?

These are animals, plants, or other organisms introduced into places outside their natural habitat. Once established, they aggressively spread and cause harm to native flora and fauna, ecosystem services, and human economies.

How are they Introduced?

Invasive species spread through various intentional or unintentional human activities:

Transport and International Trade: Global shipping and trade are major vectors.

- Example: Parthenium (native to Central and South America) is widely believed to have entered India unintentionally through contaminated wheat imports from the United States in 1956.

Agriculture and Ornamental Plants: Plants brought for aesthetic or agricultural purposes often escape cultivation.

- Example: The tropical American shrub Lantana camara was introduced to India in the early 19th century as an ornamental plant. It has now become a severe threat, aggressively taking over scrublands and native forests.

Other Pathways: Trade in wildlife, tourism, recreational hunting/fishing, and abandoning exotic pets in the wild.

Climate Change: Rising temperatures and altered weather patterns facilitate the rapid spread and establishment of these alien species in new territories.

Impact of Invasive Alien Species

Extinction Driver: They are one of the biggest global causes of biodiversity loss and species extinctions.

Historical Impact: Since the 17th century, IAS have contributed to nearly 40% of all animal extinctions where the cause is known.

Food Security: They pose a massive global threat to food production by acting as weeds or pests.

Ecosystem Resilience: They severely reduce the resilience of natural habitats, agricultural systems, and urban areas to cope with climate change.

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

The IUCN is the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.

Background: Established in 1948 in Fontainebleau, France. Previously known as the International Union for the Protection of Nature and the World Conservation Union.

Membership: Unique composition including both government and civil society organizations.

Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland.

The IUCN Red List of Species

Established in 1964, it assesses the extinction risk of animals, fungi, and plants. It is a powerful tool for policy change and conservation action.

The 9 Categories of the Red List

Species are classified based on population decline, size, and geographic range:

1. Extinct (EX): No reasonable doubt that the last individual has died.

2. Extinct in Wild (EW): Survives only in cultivation, captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range.

3. Critically Endangered (CR): Extremely high risk of extinction. Criteria: 80-90% population decline over 10 years, or < 50 individuals.

4. Endangered (EN): Very high risk of extinction. Criteria: 50-70% decline over 10 years, or < 250 individuals.

5. Vulnerable (VU): High risk of extinction. Criteria: 30-50% decline over 10 years, or < 1,000 individuals.

6. Near Threatened (NT): Close to qualifying for a threatened category in the near future.

7. Least Concern (LC): Pervasive and abundant species.

8. Data Deficient (DD): Inadequate information to make a direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction.

9. Not Evaluated (NE): Not yet evaluated against the IUCN criteria.

Current Status (Global Threat Levels)

Over 150,300 species are currently on the IUCN Red List.

More than 42,100 species are threatened with extinction. This includes 41% of amphibians (the most threatened group), 37% of sharks and rays, 36% of reef-building corals, 34% of conifers, 27% of mammals, and 13% of birds.

Why Conserve Biodiversity?

The enormous value of biodiversity—spanning genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic, and ecological importance—makes its conservation a critical global priority.

1. In-situ Conservation (On-site)

This approach involves the conservation of species within their natural habitat. It is achieved by protecting the wild flora and fauna in nature itself, allowing them to evolve and interact dynamically with their ecosystem.

Examples: Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Reserve Forests.

2. Ex-situ Conservation (Off-site)

This approach involves the conservation of species outside their natural habitat. It is often used for critically endangered species that require immediate human intervention to survive.

Examples: Establishment of Gene banks, Seed banks, Zoos (Zoological parks), Botanical gardens, and tissue culture collections.

What are Protected Areas?

Protected areas are designated geographical zones where human occupation or the exploitation of natural resources is strictly limited or regulated. They are the most critical mechanism for in-situ (on-site) biodiversity conservation and include both terrestrial and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).

IUCN Definition: A "clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.

IUCN Classification of Protected Areas

To standardize conservation efforts globally, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies protected areas into 6 main categories based on their management objectives:

Category I (Strict Protection): Divided into Ia (Strict Nature Reserves managed mainly for science) and Ib (Wilderness Areas managed for wilderness protection). These areas restrict human visitation strictly.

Category II (National Parks): Managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. They protect large-scale ecological processes and species, while allowing environmentally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational, and recreational visitor use.

Category III (Natural Monuments): Managed mainly for the conservation of specific natural features (e.g., a spectacular waterfall, cave, or ancient grove) having outstanding or unique value.

Category IV (Habitat/Species Management): Managed mainly for conservation through active management interventions to ensure the maintenance of specific habitats or to meet the requirements of specific species.

Category V (Protected Landscape/Seascape): Managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. These are areas where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cultural, and scenic value.

Category VI (Sustainable Use): Protected areas with the sustainable use of natural resources. They conserve ecosystems and habitats while simultaneously allowing the sustainable extraction of resources (usually by local communities) to play a role in the region's socio-economic development.

Protected Areas in India

India has a robust network of protected areas classified primarily into four categories under the law: National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves. Additionally, there are specialized designations like Biosphere Reserves, Tiger Reserves, and Elephant Reserves.

Legislative Framework

Core Legislation: Protected Areas are primarily constituted and governed under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 (WPA).

Complementary Acts: The implementation of the WPA is supported by several other key environmental laws:

- Indian Forest Act, 1927

- Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

- Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

- Biological Diversity Act, 2002

- Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)

Wildlife Sanctuaries

A Wildlife Sanctuary is an area of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural, or zoological significance. It is specifically declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating, or developing wildlife or its environment.

Declaration and Status

Legal Provision: They are declared under Section 26A of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.

Current Status (as of 2023): There are 567 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India, covering a massive area of 125,564.86 sq km.

Maximum Sanctuaries: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands hold the highest number of wildlife sanctuaries in the country (97).

Key Characteristics

Unlike National Parks, Sanctuaries do not completely exclude human presence:

Restricted Human Activities: Certain restricted and regulated human activities (like grazing or firewood collection) are allowed inside a Sanctuary.

Rights Settlement: During the settlement of claims before finally notifying the Sanctuary, the Collector has the authority to allow the continuation of any right of any person in or over any land within the sanctuary's limits.

1. National Parks

A National Park is an area with adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural, or zoological significance, declared for protecting, propagating, or developing wildlife or its environment.

Legal Provisions and Status

Declaration: Declared under Section 35 of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 by either Central or State governments.

Current Status: India has 106 existing National Parks covering 44,402.95 sq km.

Maximum Parks: Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of national parks (11).

First National Park: Jim Corbett National Park (established in 1936 as Hailey National Park) is India's first.

Key Characteristics

Strict Boundaries: National Parks have well-defined, legally bound borders.

No Downgrading: A National Park cannot be downgraded to the status of a Wildlife Sanctuary.

Zero Human Activity: No human activity (like grazing or forestry) is allowed except for those explicitly permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state.

Resource Exploitation: Any removal or exploitation of wildlife or forest produce requires the strict recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL).

2. Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves

Introduced via the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002, these areas act as buffer zones, connectors, and migration corridors between established National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and reserved/protected forests.

Conservation Reserves

Ownership: Completely owned by the Government of India (uninhabited).

Usage: Used for subsistence by local communities.

Status/Example: 105 exist. Tiruppadaimarathur (Tamil Nadu, 2005) is India's first Conservation Reserve.

Community Reserves

Ownership: Declared if a part of the lands is privately or community-owned, where the community volunteers to conserve wildlife.

Status/Example: 220 exist. Examples include Gogabil (Bihar) and Singchang Begun Village (Arunachal Pradesh).

3. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

An umbrella term for areas dedicated to marine conservation (reefs, seagrass beds, mudflats, mangroves).

Indian Context: Protected areas that fall (in whole or part) within a swath of 500 meters from the high tide line into the marine environment are included in the MPA Network.

Status: There are a total of 128 MPAs in India.

Marine National Parks: There are four prominent Marine National Parks/Sanctuaries:
1. Gulf of Kutch Marine Sanctuary (Gujarat)
2. Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park (Gujarat)
3. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (Andaman & Nicobar Islands)
4. Gulf of Mannar National Park (Tamil Nadu).

What are Biosphere Reserves?

Biosphere reserves are large areas of terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems (or a combination thereof) where plant and animal wildlife are protected alongside the promotion of sustainable human development.

Background: UNESCO and the MAB Programme

Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme: Launched by UNESCO in 1970, it is an intergovernmental scientific program aiming to establish a scientific basis for enhancing the relationship between people and their environments.

Initiation: The specific idea of 'Biosphere Reserves' was initiated by UNESCO in 1973-74 under this MAB Programme.

World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR): Established under MAB to demonstrate a balanced relationship between people and nature. The world’s first biosphere reserve was established in 1979.

- Current Status: As of recent data (2022), there are 738 biosphere reserves across 134 countries, including 22 transboundary sites.

In News: The World’s First 5-Country Biosphere Reserve

In 2021, UNESCO designated the Mura-Drava-Danube (MDD) as the world’s first 'five-country biosphere reserve'.

Geography: It covers 700 kilometers of the Mura, Drava, and Danube rivers.

Countries Involved: Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, and Serbia.

Significance: The region is popularly known as the "Amazon of Europe" due to its massive, pristine riverine ecosystems.

Functions of Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere Reserves actively involve local communities and stakeholders. They have three primary functions:

1. Conservation: Protecting biodiversity, landscapes, ecosystems, species, and cultural diversity.

2. Development: Fostering economic and human development that is both socio-culturally and environmentally sustainable.

3. Logistic Support: Underpinning development through scientific research, monitoring, environmental education, and training.

Zonation of Biosphere Reserves

To effectively manage the conflicting needs of conservation and development, Biosphere Reserves are strictly divided into three distinct zones:

1. Core Area: The innermost, strictly protected zone. It contributes to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation. No human interference is allowed except for non-destructive scientific research.

2. Buffer Zone: Surrounds or adjoins the core area. It is used for cooperative activities compatible with sound ecological practices, such as environmental education, recreation, eco-tourism, and applied research.

3. Transition Area: The outermost part of the reserve. This is the zone of cooperation where local communities foster socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable economic and human activities (e.g., farming, settlements).

Designation of Biosphere Reserves

National Level: The Indian National Man and Biosphere (MAB) Committee identifies and recommends potential sites for designation, strictly following UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria.

International Level: Upon the country's request, these reserves are admitted into the international network by the International Coordinating Council (ICC) of the MAB Programme, provided they fulfill the prescribed criteria.

National Biosphere Reserve Programme

Background: Initiated by the Government of India in 1986.

Core Objectives:

- To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems.

- To safeguard the genetic diversity of species upon which their continuing evolution depends.

- To provide dedicated areas for multi-faceted scientific research and ecological monitoring.

- To provide facilities for environmental education and training.

- To ensure the sustainable use of natural resources through appropriate technology, ultimately improving the economic well-being of the local people.

Understanding the Conservation Spectrum

India's protected area network operates on a spectrum of protection levels, from species-focused sanctuaries to landscape-level biosphere reserves.

Wildlife Sanctuaries: Primarily species-oriented, aiming to protect specific flora or fauna. They allow a certain degree of human activity and traditional rights.

National Parks: Focused on protecting the entire ecosystem (including flora, fauna, and historical objects) with highly restricted, zero-human-interference zones.

Biosphere Reserves: Large-scale, internationally recognized areas that aim to protect entire regional biodiversity while actively promoting sustainable development and research. A single Biosphere Reserve can encompass multiple National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries within its boundaries.

Tiger Reserves

Tiger Reserves are protected areas established to conserve the tiger population, their prey base, and their natural habitat.

Declaration and Administration

Authority: They are declared and administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

Legal Framework: Governed under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006, as part of 'Project Tiger'.

Zonation of Tiger Reserves

Core Zone: Has the same legal status as a National Park or Sanctuary. It is an inviolate area where human activities, grazing, and forestry are strictly prohibited.

Buffer Zone: Surrounds the core area. It allows regulated human activities like scientific research, sustainable settlements of forest dwellers, and grazing to promote co-existence.

Key Facts

Total Number: There are 54 Tiger Reserves in India.

First in India: Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka).

Largest in India: Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Andhra Pradesh).

Elephant Reserves and Corridors

Elephant Reserves are notified territories intended to protect elephants, their environment, and their migratory routes.

Project Elephant: Established under this central scheme to ensure the long-term survival of viable populations.

Status: There are 33 Elephant Reserves in India.

Elephant Corridors

Definition: These are narrow strips of land that act as bridges between two large elephant habitats.

Significance: They allow for risk-free movement, reducing Man-Elephant conflicts, accidental fatalities (e.g., train collisions), and ensuring genetic exchange between populations.

Identification: Around 101 Elephant Corridors have been identified across India by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI).

Key Protected Areas & Recent Developments

1. Orang National Park (Assam)

News: Assam government decided to expand the park to thrice its original size.

Location: Northern bank of Brahmaputra River; Assam's oldest reserve.

Rivers: Pachnoi, Belsiri, and Dhanshiri flow through it.

Fauna: One-horned Rhinoceros, Pygmy Hog, and Bengal Tiger.

2. Terai Elephant Reserve (Uttar Pradesh)

News: Notified as India's 33rd Elephant Reserve under Project Elephant.

Significance: Conserves trans-boundary migration of elephants from Nepal; covers grasslands in Dudhwa and Pilibhit.

3. Kuno National Park (Madhya Pradesh)

News: Reintroduction site for African Cheetahs from Namibia under Project Cheetah.

Ecology: Part of the northern tropical dry deciduous forest zone; features the perennial Kuno River.

Connectivity: Contiguous to Panna TR and connected to Ranthambore NP.

4. Keibul Lamjao National Park (Manipur)

Unique Feature: World's only floating park, characterized by 'Phumdis' (floating decomposed plant material) on Loktak Lake.

Endemic Species: Home to the famous Sangai (Dancing Deer).

5. Durgavati Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh)

News: Newly approved to host tigers from Panna TR.

Context: Created to offset habitat loss in Panna due to the Ken-Betwa river linking project.

6. Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu)

Location: Tri-junction of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu; part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

Feature: Theppakadu Elephant Camp (Asia's oldest) is located here.

Accreditation: Received CA|TS (Global Conservation Assured Tiger Standards) accreditation.

7. Bhitarkanika National Park (Odisha)

Status: India's second-largest mangrove forest; record numbers of saltwater crocodile hatchlings.

Geography: Estuarial region of Brahmani and Baitarani rivers; includes Gahirmatha beach (mass turtle nesting).

8. National Chambal Sanctuary (MP/RJ/UP)

News: Proposal to legalize regulated sand mining to curb illegal extraction.

Role: Critical site for the Gharial reintroduction programme; hosts Gangetic Dolphins.

What are Sacred Groves?

Sacred Groves (or sacred forests) are small or large tracts of virgin vegetation that are left untouched by local inhabitants. They are protected by local communities due to deep-rooted cultural, traditional, or religious beliefs, often dedicated to local deities or ancestral spirits.

Ecological Significance

Conservation of Biodiversity: They act as 'mini-biosphere reserves' and important repositories of floral and faunal diversity that might have disappeared elsewhere.

Water Conservation: Many groves are associated with perennial ponds, streams, or springs. The dense vegetative cover helps in recharging aquifers and maintaining the local water table.

Soil Conservation: The thick root systems and leaf litter improve soil stability and prevent erosion, especially in hilly terrains.

Distribution and Regional Names

Studies suggest India may have between 100,000 to 150,000 sacred groves. They are known by various regional names across the country:

Sarpa Kavu (Kerala): Traditional groves across the Malabar Coast, often dedicated to snakes.

Umang Lai (Manipur): Sacred groves associated with the Meitei community and local deities.

Gompa Forest Areas (Arunachal Pradesh): Groves attached to Buddhist monasteries, managed by Lamas and the Mompa tribe.

Devara Kadu (Karnataka): Meaning 'Forest of the Gods'.

Sarnas (Jharkhand/Chhattisgarh): Associated with the Munda and Oraon tribes.

Threats to Sacred Groves

Despite their ecological and cultural importance, sacred groves in India are under severe pressure from modern changes:

Shifting Beliefs: Disappearance of traditional belief systems and 'Sanskritization'—where primitive nature worship is replaced by formal temple structures, leading to the clearing of trees.

Human Pressure: Rapid urbanization, developmental projects, increasing livestock grazing, and fuelwood collection.

Biological Threats: Invasion by exotic weeds like Lantana camara and Prosopis which choke native vegetation.

Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ)

ESZs are fragile areas surrounding National Parks and Sanctuaries, designed to minimize the impact of human activities on core wilderness.

Statutory Regulation: Notified by the MoEFCC under the Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986.

Aims:

- To act as shock absorbers for Protected Areas (PAs).

- To serve as a transition zone between areas of high protection and those with lower protection.

Extent: Usually up to 10 km around a PA. However, if sensitive corridors or ecological patches exist beyond 10 km, they can also be included.

Activity Classification in ESZ

Activities within an ESZ are categorized to balance ecology and local livelihoods:

Prohibited: Commercial mining, sawmills, polluting industries, and major hydroelectric projects.

Regulated: Felling of trees, hotels/resorts, widening of roads, and change of agricultural systems.

Permissible: Rainwater harvesting, organic farming, and ongoing local agricultural/horticultural practices.

In News: Supreme Court Mandate

In the TN Godavarman Thirumalpad v/s Union of India case, the SC passed a landmark judgment regarding ESZs.

The 1 km Rule: Every protected forest, national park, and sanctuary must mandatorily have a minimum 1 km ESZ from its boundary.

Key Highlights:

- If an existing ESZ is already wider than 1 km, the wider boundary prevails.

- No new permanent structures are allowed within the ESZ.

- Mining is strictly prohibited within National Parks and Sanctuaries.

What are Biodiversity Heritage Sites?

BHS are well-defined areas that are unique, ecologically fragile, and possess a rich biodiversity. This may include wild species, domesticated species, or even significant cultural/evolutionary components.

Regulatory Framework

Legal Provision: Under Section 37 of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, the State Government, in consultation with local bodies, notifies these areas.

Governance: The State Government, in consultation with the Central Government, frames the specific rules for the management and conservation of these sites.

Community Involvement: Unlike National Parks, BHS aim to conserve biodiversity without necessarily restricting the existing livelihoods of the local people.

Important Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India

Nallur Tamarind Grove (Karnataka): Located in Bengaluru, this was the first BHS notified in India. It contains ancient tamarind trees believed to be from the Chola period.

Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh): Notified in 2022, it is a significant site for the origin of rivers and diverse flora.

Hajong Tortoise Lake (Assam): A unique high-altitude lake significant for various species of tortoises.

Borjuli Wild Rice Site (Assam): Vital for the conservation of the wild progenitor of cultivated rice.

In News: Tamil Nadu's First BHS

In a significant move for conservation in South India, the Arittapatti and Meenakshipuram villages in Madurai district were notified as the first Biodiversity Heritage Site in Tamil Nadu.

Significance: The site features a rich landscape of hillocks (inselbergs) that act as watersheds and support diverse bird species and raptors.

1. Zoological Parks (Zoos)

Zoos are artificial habitats that play a crucial role in the captive breeding and recovery of species that are nearing extinction in the wild.

Success Stories in India

Pygmy Hog: Successfully bred at the Guwahati Zoo, aiding the recovery of this world's smallest and rarest wild equid.

Manipur Brow-antlered Deer (Sangai): The Delhi Zoo achieved significant success in breeding this rare species, ensuring a backup population outside Manipur.

Governance and Management

Legislative Basis: Managed under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and guided by the National Zoo Policy, 1998.

Central Zoo Authority (CZA): Established in 1992 as a statutory body to oversee all zoos in India.

- Composition: Consists of a Chairman, ten members, and a Member Secretary.

- Legal Power: Every zoo in India must obtain recognition from the CZA to operate.

2. Botanical Gardens

A botanical garden is a scientifically managed collection of living plants, maintained for the purposes of documented research, conservation, and education.

Ecological and Commercial Importance

Living Database: Acts as a repository for both native and exotic plant species.

EET Species: Critical for the introduction and protection of Endemic, Endangered, and Threatened (EET) plants.

Economic Research: Helps develop improved varieties of economically important plants for commercial use.

Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden

Location: Howrah, West Bengal (under the Botanical Survey of India).

History: Founded in 1787 by Colonel Robert Kyd; it is the first botanical garden in India.

The Great Banyan Tree: The garden’s main attraction, which was recorded as the largest tree specimen in the world in 1989. It lacks a main trunk and survives through thousands of aerial prop roots.