Indian Legislation, Policies & Missions — UPSC Environment Notes

1. Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972

The Act was enacted to provide a robust framework for the protection of plants and animal species, realizing that previous laws like the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912 were insufficient.

Key Authorities: The Central Government appoints the Director of Wildlife Preservation, while the State Government appoints the Chief Wildlife Warden and other wardens.

Protected Areas: The Act provides the legal basis for the establishment of Sanctuaries, National Parks, Conservation Reserves, Community Reserves, and Tiger Reserves.

National Board for Wildlife (NBWL): Constituted via the 2002 amendment. It is chaired by the Prime Minister and functions to promote conservation, frame policies, and advise central/state governments.

Hunting & Trade Restrictions: Hunting is strictly prohibited except in specific cases (e.g., education, research, threat to human life, or incurable disease). Trade in wildlife trophies and animal articles is completely prohibited (except for vermin).

2. The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022

This amendment significantly overhauled the 1972 Act to align it with modern conservation needs and international obligations.

Key Features of the 2022 Amendment:

Implementation of CITES: The Act mandates the Central Government to designate a Management Authority to grant export/import permits for CITES-listed species. Traders must report transactions, and individuals possessing live scheduled specimens must obtain a registration certificate.

Rationalizing Schedules: The Act reduced the total number of schedules from six to four. It removed the specific schedule for vermin species and inserted a new schedule exclusively for specimens protected under CITES.

Invasive Alien Species: It empowers the Central Government to regulate or prohibit the import, trade, possession, or proliferation of non-native invasive species that threaten domestic wildlife or habitats.

Conservation Reserves: Previously, only State Governments could declare areas adjacent to national parks/sanctuaries as conservation reserves. The amended Act empowers the Central Government to also notify them.

Control of Sanctuaries: Specifies that the actions of the Chief Wildlife Warden must be strictly in accordance with approved sanctuary management plans, prepared as per central guidelines.

Surrender of Captive Animals: Allows for the voluntary surrender of captive animals to the Chief Wildlife Warden. The surrendered items become state property, and no compensation is paid to the individual.

1. Background and Aim

India enacted the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 to fulfill its obligations under the international Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Primary Aims:

1. Conservation of biological diversity.

2. Sustainable use of its components.

3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge.

2. Key Features of the Act

Regulation of Access: Strictly regulates requests by foreign nationals, institutions, and companies to access Indian biological resources or transfer traditional knowledge.

National Plans: Makes it a statutory duty for the Central Government to formulate strategies and plans for biodiversity conservation.

Threatened Species: Empowers the Central Government to notify threatened species and strictly prohibit or regulate their collection.

Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS): Allows State Governments, in consultation with local bodies, to notify areas of unique biodiversity importance.

3. Three-Tier Institutional Framework

The Act decentralizes biodiversity governance into three distinct levels:

1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): Operates at the national level.

- Headquarters: Chennai.

- Leadership: Headed by a Chairperson.

- Key Functions: Regulates prohibited acts, advises the government on conservation and BHS selection, and critically, takes steps to oppose the grant of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in foreign countries that unlawfully use Indian biological resources or traditional knowledge (combating Bio-piracy).

2. State Biodiversity Board (SBB): Operates at the state level to advise state governments and regulate access by domestic entities.

3. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC): Operates at the local panchayat/municipality level to prepare People's Biodiversity Registers (PBR) and ensure local conservation.

Offences: Violations under this Act are strictly cognizable and non-bailable.

4. National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP)

1999: India prepared its first NBAP after becoming a party to the CBD in 1993.

2008 Revision: Updated to align the biodiversity agenda with the National Environment Policy, 2006.

2014 Update: Further revised to integrate the global Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-20, which included the Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

1. About the Hangul (Kashmir Stag)

Habitat: Strictly endemic to India, primarily found in Dachigam National Park and adjoining protected areas in Jammu & Kashmir.

Unique Lineage: It is the only surviving species of the Asiatic member of the red deer family.

Official Status: It is the state animal of the Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir.

2. Project Hangul (1970)

The Hangul population suffered a catastrophic decline in the 1950s and 1960s, prompting immediate conservation action.

Launch: Initiated in 1970 by the Jammu and Kashmir government with the technical and financial assistance of the IUCN and WWF.

Major Threats Addressed:

- Shrinking and fragmented habitat.

- Illegal poaching.

- Illegal incursion by nomadic herders into protected zones.

- Intense competition for grazing grounds from domestic livestock.

Evaluation: Initially successful (population increased from 150 to 340 between 1970 and 1980). However, subsequent pressures reversed this trend, with the 2017 census reporting an alarming decrease to just 182 individuals.

3. Recent Conservation Initiatives

Wildlife Conservation Fund (2010): Established specifically to protect the wilderness in J&K, making Hangul conservation its top operational priority.

Captive Breeding (2013): To prevent imminent extinction and address genetic bottlenecking, the Kashmir state wildlife department established a captive breeding center in Shikargarh.

1. About the Tiger

Habitat: Spread across 13 tiger range countries. India alone hosts approximately 70 percent of the world's tiger population.

Important Facts: It is the largest of all cats. Unlike many predators, tigers rely primarily on sight and sound rather than smell for hunting.

Subspecies: Since 2017, the IUCN recognizes only two tiger subspecies: the continental tiger and the Sunda Island tiger (all remaining island tigers are found only in Sumatra).

2. Project Tiger (1973)

Background: India's tiger population plummeted from an estimated 40,000 in 1900 to an unbelievably low 1,800 by 1972. Major threats included poaching (for traditional medicines), habitat loss, and retaliatory killings.

Launch: Based on a 1971 task force's recommendations, Project Tiger was launched in 1973 at the Jim Corbett National Park. It initially covered nine tiger reserves.

Nature of Scheme: It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme aiming to promote the in-situ conservation of tigers.

3. Core-Buffer Strategy & NTCA

Core-Buffer Strategy: Tiger reserves are managed using a specific zonation pattern. The 'Core' area is kept as an inviolate critical tiger habitat, while the peripheral 'Buffer' area allows for sustainable human-wildlife co-existence.

National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA): To give statutory backing to Project Tiger, the NTCA was established in 2006. It is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), created via the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006.

1. All-India Tiger Census

Conducted every four years by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) in collaboration with State Forest Departments and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).

2018 Census Highlights: The tiger population reached 2,967 (up from 1,411 in 2006).

Top Performers: Madhya Pradesh recorded the highest number of tigers (526), while Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) had the highest population among specific reserves.

2. M-STrIPES

Stands for Monitoring System for Tigers – Intensive Protection and Ecological Status.

It is a software-based monitoring system launched across Indian tiger reserves by the NTCA in 2010 to enhance patrol efficiency and ecological tracking.

3. Global Tiger Initiatives

International Tiger Day: Observed globally on 29th July every year.

St. Petersburg Declaration & TX2 (2010): Endorsed by 13 Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) in Russia. The historic TX2 motto aimed to double the number of wild tigers across their range by 2022.

4. Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CA|TS)

A set of criteria allowing tiger sites to check whether their management leads to successful tiger conservation. 14 Tiger Reserves in India have been awarded this prestigious international accreditation.

1. Crocodilian Species of India

India hosts three distinct species of crocodilians, each with unique habitats and physical characteristics:

Mugger (Marsh Crocodile): The most 'alligator-like' of all crocodile species. It is a hole-nesting species that lays eggs during the annual dry season. Its range extends across India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, and into eastern Iran.

Estuarine (Saltwater Crocodile): The largest of all crocodile species, known for its reputation as a man-eater. Found in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park, the Sundarbans (West Bengal), and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Gharial: Easily identifiable by its long, thin, pot-resembling snout. It is a relatively harmless, fish-eating species. Gharials act as an indicator species; a healthy population reflects a clean and healthy river system. Primarily found in the Chambal river, with secondary habitats in the Ghagra, Gandak, Girwa, Ramganga, and Son rivers.

2. Indian Crocodile Conservation Project

Launch: Initiated in 1975 across various Indian states.

Aim: To conserve and rebuild the dwindling crocodile populations in India through captive breeding and habitat protection.

3. Dedicated Gharial Conservation Efforts

Given its Critically Endangered status, the Gharial has received focused conservation interventions:

Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary (Odisha): Gharial conservation first started here in 1975.

GRACU (1975): The Gharial Research and Conservation Unit at Tikarpada was formed as a joint initiative by Odisha with technical support from the UNDP and FAO.

Captive Breeding: A successful gharial breeding center was built in the Nandan Kanan Zoological Park (Odisha) to boost their numbers.

Reintroduction Programs:

- Punjab: 24 Gharials were released into the Beas Conservation Reserve with the help of WWF-India.

- Uttar Pradesh: WWF-India, in collaboration with the UP Forest Department, started a reintroduction program at the Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary.

> Did You Know? > World Crocodile Day is celebrated globally every year on 17th June .

1. Lesser Cats Project (1976)

While big cats like tigers and lions get the spotlight, India is also home to numerous small wild cats that play a crucial ecological role.

Background: Launched in 1976 with the assistance of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).

Aim: To conserve four specific species of lesser cats found in West Bengal and the North-Eastern states of India:

1. Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis)

2. Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata)

3. Asian Golden Cat (Felis temminckii)

4. Fishing Cat (Felis viverrina)

Recent Developments: The Global Tiger Forum (GTF) recently launched a new programme titled 'Strengthening conservation and resilience of globally significant wild cat landscapes with focus on small wild cat conservation in India', bringing renewed attention to these overlooked species.

2. Manipur Brow-Antlered Deer (Sangai) Project

The Sangai, or Indian Eld's Deer, is a highly localized and unique species facing intense survival pressures.

Habitat: Endemic to the Keibul Lamjao National Park in Manipur (the world's only floating national park on Loktak Lake).

Important Facts:

- It is the State Animal of Manipur.

- Commonly known as the "Dancing Deer" because of its delicate, balancing gait as it walks over the floating vegetation (phumdis).

- The annual Sangai Festival in Manipur is named in its honor.

Major Threats: Habitat loss (deterioration of phumdis), invasion of non-native plants, poaching, and the spread of diseases from domestic livestock.

3. Project Manipur Thamin (1977)

Launch: The specific conservation project for the Sangai was launched in 1977.

Core Aims:

- Preserve and restore the fragile supporting environment (phumdis) for their survival.

- Train field officials for specialized wetland wildlife management.

- Increase the dwindling deer population.

- Reduce human-induced stress and encroachments in the Keibul Lamjao area.

1. The Gangetic River Dolphin (Susu)

The Gangetic River Dolphin is a highly specialized aquatic mammal deeply tied to the health of the Indian subcontinent's major river systems.

Habitat: Endemic to the Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems in India and Bangladesh. In India, they are found in the states of UP, MP, Rajasthan, Bihar, Assam, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.

Important Facts:

- Freshwater Only: They can only survive in pure freshwater environments.

- Echolocation: They are essentially blind and hunt their prey (fish) using ultrasonic sound waves.

- Nomenclature: Locally known as 'Susu', which mimics the distinct noise they make while breathing at the surface.

- Indicator Species: Their presence strongly indicates the ecological health and water quality of the river system.

Major Threats: Direct killing (poaching for dolphin oil), severe habitat fragmentation (due to dams and barrages), and water pollution.

2. Conservation Initiatives in India

National Recognition: Officially declared as the National Aquatic Animal of India in 2009.

Dedicated Sanctuary: The Vikramshila Ganges Dolphin Sanctuary was established in Bihar in 1991 under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. It remains India's primary protected area for the species.

Research: India's first National Dolphin Research Center has been established on the premises of Patna University in Bihar.

Project Dolphin: A major proposed project under the Arth Ganga initiative, designed on the successful lines of Project Tiger. Importantly, it aims to conserve both riverine and oceanic dolphin species.

Awareness: National Ganga River Dolphin Day is celebrated annually on 5th October.

1. About the Asian Elephant

The Asian Elephant is the largest land mammal in Asia. They are highly sociable animals primarily found in wet tropical evergreen forests.

Key Physical Trait: A major distinguishing feature is that Asian elephants have significantly smaller ears compared to their African counterparts.

Conservation Status: They are listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), and placed in Appendix I of CITES.

2. Project Elephant (1992)

Launch: Launched in February 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.

Aim: To provide financial and technical support to major elephant-bearing states for the protection of elephants, their habitats, and migratory corridors.

Core Objectives:

- Protect elephants, habitats, and corridors.

- Address the escalating issues of Man-Animal Conflict.

- Ensure the welfare of captive elephants.

- Develop scientific and planned management strategies.

3. MIKE Programme

Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) is a site-based system established under the mandate of CITES.

Purpose: Designed to monitor trends in the illegal poaching of elephants, build management capacity, and provide actionable information to help range States make appropriate enforcement decisions.

India's Participation: India has 10 designated MIKE sites spanning across various states to monitor regional elephant populations.

4. Project RE-HAB

Executing Agency: Uniquely launched by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), not the environment ministry.

Concept: Aims to reduce Human-Elephant Conflicts (HEC) using innovative "Bee-fences". Bee boxes are set up in the passageways of elephants to block their entrance into human territories and agricultural fields, as elephants are naturally deterred by bees.

1. The Great One-Horned Rhino (Indian Rhino)

The Indian Rhino is the largest of all Asian rhinos and is highly concentrated in specific regional pockets.

Habitat: Primarily found in the Indo-Nepal Terai region, northern West Bengal, and Assam.

Important Facts: It possesses a single horn, which is present in both sexes. The horn is made of keratin (the same protein as human hair and nails), which unfortunately drives intense poaching demand for traditional medicine.

2. Project Rhino & Indian Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020

Launched in 2005, the project aimed to address critical threats like trophy hunting, poaching, and habitat destruction.

IRV 2020 Objectives:

1. Population: Increase the rhino population from 2,000 to 3,000 by the year 2020 in Assam.

2. Distribution: Spread this population across Seven Protected Areas in Assam to reduce the risk of localized extinction (Kaziranga, Pobitora, Orang, Manas, Laokhowa, Burachapori, and Dibru Saikhowa).

Evaluation & Achievements:

- Success: The primary objective was achieved, with the population successfully crossing the 3,000 mark.

- Shortfall: The second objective (distribution across all 7 PAs) was not achieved, leaving the population heavily skewed towards Kaziranga.

3. Global Rhino Initiatives

New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos (2019): A landmark agreement signed by the five rhino range nations (India, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia, and Malaysia) to collaboratively conserve and protect the species.

National Rhino Conservation Strategy (2019): Launched specifically to conserve the greater one-horned rhinoceros in India.

4. Project Red Panda (1994)

The Red Panda is a shy, solitary, and arboreal (tree-dwelling) mammal that serves as a crucial indicator of ecological change in the Himalayas.

Habitat: Found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, northern Myanmar, and southern China. In India, it is restricted to Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, and Meghalaya.

Important Facts: They feed primarily on bamboo and use their large, bushy tails for balancing on branches and covering themselves for warmth in winter.

Conservation Project: Started in 1994 with the help of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Its aim is to protect their vulnerable natural habitat, train field workers, and increase cooperation between Red Panda-ranging states.

Major Threats: Habitat loss (deforestation of bamboo forests), human interference, and poaching.

1. The Crisis: The Diclofenac Tragedy

Between the 1990s and 2007, India lost nearly 95-99 percent of its vultures. The primary culprit was Diclofenac , a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat livestock. Vultures die from acute kidney failure and visceral gout after consuming carcasses of animals treated with this drug.

2. Vulture Species and Status (2026 Update)

India is home to 9 species, many of which remain on the brink of extinction:

Critically Endangered (CR): Oriental White-backed, Long-billed, Slender-billed, and Red-headed Vulture.

Endangered (EN): Egyptian Vulture.

Near Threatened (NT): Himalayan Vulture, Bearded Vulture, Cinereous Vulture.

Least Concern (LC): Eurasian Griffon.

3. Vulture Action Plan 2020-25

Drug Regulation: Expanding the ban beyond Diclofenac to other toxic NSAIDs like Ketoprofen, Aceclofenac, and Nimesulide (banned in 2023-24). Promoting Meloxicam and Tolfenamic Acid as safe alternatives.

Safe Zones (VSZs): Establishing areas with a 100-150 km radius where no toxic drugs are found in cattle carcasses for two consecutive years.

Conservation Breeding: Led by the Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre (JCBC) in Pinjore, Haryana. In January 2026 , the BNHS successfully released captive-bred Slender-billed and White-rumped vultures into the wild in Assam.

4. Key Initiatives & Infrastructure

Vulture Restaurants: Safe feeding sites where diclofenac-free carcasses are provided to wild populations.

The Vulture Network (2025): India's first online vulture knowledge portal launched in Assam to provide scientific data and awareness materials.

SAVE (Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction): An international consortium coordinating the 'Blueprint Recovery Plan' across South Asia.

1. The Great Indian Bustard (GIB)

Status: The GIB is a large, ground-dwelling bird and is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world. Locally known as Godawan , it is the State Bird of Rajasthan .

Habitat: Endemic to India. Major strongholds are the Desert National Park (Rajasthan) and isolated pockets in Gujarat, MP, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

Major Threats: Collision with overhead power lines (windmills), grassland depletion (due to agriculture), and hunting.

Project GIB (2013): A flagship program of the Rajasthan government focusing on creating breeding enclosures and reducing human pressure in core habitats.

2. The Snow Leopard (Ghost of the Mountains)

Unique Traits: Known for exceptional camouflage and long tails. Its black spot patterns ( rosettes ) are unique to each individual, like human fingerprints.

Habitat: Found in the high-altitude snowy hilly parts of 12 Central and South Asian countries. In India, it is found across the Himalayas (UTs of J&K and Ladakh, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh).

Conservation Status: Currently Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.

3. Project Snow Leopard (2009)

Approach: Follows a Landscape Approach, identifying smaller core zones with high conservation potential within larger landscapes.

Community Involvement: Local communities are central to the project, providing traditional knowledge and participating in conservation efforts.

Collaborators: MoEFCC, Wildlife Institute of India (WII), and the Nature Conservation Foundation.

4. Global & Regional Initiatives

GSLEP (2013): Formed by the Bishkek Declaration ; an alliance of 12 range countries. Its goal was 'Secure 20 by 2020' (securing 20 snow leopard landscapes).

SECURE Himalaya: A MoEFCC-UNDP project. It aims at sustainable management of alpine pastures and securing livelihoods to reduce wildlife crime.

1. Major Turtle Species in India

Leith’s Soft-Shell Turtle: Endemic to peninsular India (Cauvery, Godavari, etc.). It is a large freshwater species reaching 1 m. Majorly threatened by illegal use in traditional Chinese medicine.

Red Crowned Roofed Turtle: Native to the Ganga basin; currently concentrated in the National Chambal Sanctuary. They prefer deep flowing rivers. Females are significantly larger than males.

Hawksbill Turtle: Found in tropical coral reefs. Named for its narrow, pointed beak. Their overlapping shell scales are highly prized, leading to intense poaching.

Bengal Roof Turtle: Known for the vivid red, yellow, and blue colors on the faces and necks of males during the breeding season.

2. Key Conservation Projects

GOI – UNDP Sea Turtle Project (1999): Executed by MoEFCC and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).

- Focus: Coastal surveys, community-based conservation, and GIS mapping of critical nesting sites.

- Goal: Strengthening the management of sea turtle habitats across the Indian coastline.

Operation Turtshield: A strategic initiative by the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) specifically designed to dismantle illegal trade networks and stop the poaching of freshwater turtles.

3. Indian Ocean - South-East Asian (IOSEA) Marine Turtle MoU

India is a signatory to this non-binding intergovernmental agreement under the CMS (Convention on Migratory Species) , which aims to protect marine turtles and their habitats in the IOSEA region.

1. Asiatic vs. African Cheetah

Cheetahs were declared extinct in India in 1952. To restore them, India chose the African subspecies due to the critically low numbers of the Asiatic subspecies.

Asiatic Cheetah: Found only in Iran (Critically Endangered). It is smaller, has more fur on the belly, and less prominent facial spots compared to its African cousin.

African Cheetah: Found across Africa (Vulnerable). It is larger, has thicker golden skin, and much more prominent spots and 'tear lines' on the face.

Unique Traits: The Cheetah is the world’s fastest land mammal. Interestingly, unlike lions or tigers, cheetahs cannot roar; they purr and chirp instead.

2. Project Cheetah (Launched 2022)

Background: Formally launched on 17th September 2022 when the first batch of cheetahs from Namibia arrived at Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.

Aim: To restore cheetahs to their historical evolutionary range in India and promote the conservation of open forest and grassland ecosystems.

Target: To introduce at least 50 cheetahs into different national parks across India over the next 5 years.

Implementing Agency: The project falls under the umbrella of Project Tiger and is managed by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

1. Species Recovery Programme

This programme focuses on high-priority conservation for 22 species (16 terrestrial and 6 aquatic) to ensure their survival not just in parks, but across the wider landscape and seascape.

Terrestrial Species (Key Examples):

Large Mammals: Asiatic Lion, Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Indian Rhino, Asian Wild Buffalo.

Deer & Antelopes: Sangai (Brow-Antlered Deer), Hangul, Swamp Deer, Nilgiri Tahr.

Birds: Great Indian Bustard, Jerdon’s Courser, Vultures, Nicobar Megapode, Edible Nest Swiftlet.

Others: Red Panda, Malabar Civet, Caracal.

Aquatic Species:

Mammals: Gangetic River Dolphin, Arabian Sea Humpback Whale, Dugong (Sea Cow).

Reptiles: Marine Turtles (Olive Ridley, Green, etc.), Northern River Terrapin.

2. National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) 2017-2031

India is currently in its third NWAP cycle, which provides a roadmap for wildlife conservation for a 15-year period.

Vision: Preservation of genetic diversity and promoting sustainable development through ecological security.

Core Pillars:

Integrated Management: Strengthening the management of wildlife habitats inside and outside the Protected Area (PA) network.

Climate Change Adaptation: For the first time, a specific focus has been placed on the impact of climate change on wildlife and the need for adaptive management.

Aquatic Biodiversity: Emphasizes the sustainable management of inland and marine aquatic ecosystems.

People's Participation: Promoting eco-tourism and nature education to turn local communities into partners in conservation.

Science & Research: Investing in human resources and high-tech monitoring to make science-based policy decisions.

1. Understanding Mangroves

Mangroves are unique coastal halophytes (salt-tolerant plants) that thrive in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical latitudes.

Habitat: They grow in salty sediments and swampy conditions, often with their roots submerged in water. They cannot survive in freezing temperatures.

Adaptations: They have specialized root systems (like pneumatophores or breathing roots) and can survive in anaerobic (low oxygen) soil conditions.

World Record: The Sundarbans (India and Bangladesh) is the largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world.

2. Significance of Mangrove Ecosystems

Carbon Sequestration: Mangroves are 'Blue Carbon' powerhouses, absorbing 4 to 5 times more carbon than tropical terrestrial forests.

Natural Barriers: They act as a physical buffer against rising tides, storm surges, and tsunamis, preventing estimated global property damages of over 65 billion every year.

Biodiversity Nursery: They are critical breeding grounds; nearly 80% of global fish populations depend on healthy mangroves for part of their life cycle.

Pollution Control: Their complex root systems act as natural filters, removing nitrates, phosphates, and other pollutants from water before it reaches the ocean.

3. Distribution in India

According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021, India's mangrove cover is approximately 4,992 sq km (0.15% of total geographical area).

Top 3 Locations:

1. West Bengal: (Sundarbans) - Highest cover in India.

2. Gujarat: (Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) - Second highest.

3. Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Third highest.

Other States: Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala.

Notable Sites: Bhitarkanika (Odisha), Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu), Krishna-Godavari Delta (Andhra Pradesh).

1. MISHTI Scheme (Budget 2023)

MISHTI stands for Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes.

Aim: To facilitate intensive mangrove plantation along India’s coastline and on salt pan lands.

Convergence Model: It is implemented by pooling resources from different sectors:

MGNREGS: Providing labor and local employment.

CAMPA Fund: Using compensatory afforestation funds.

Other Sources: Public-private partnerships and state government funds.

Tangible Income: Unlike traditional plantation, MISHTI emphasizes creating sustainable economic benefits for coastal communities through the preservation of these habitats.

2. Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC)

Background: This international alliance was conceptualized during the COP-27 Summit in Egypt.

Leadership: Spearheaded by the UAE in partnership with Indonesia.

Members: India, UAE, Indonesia, Australia, Japan, Spain, and Sri Lanka.

Objective: To scale up and accelerate the conservation and restoration of mangrove forests globally, recognizing their role as a critical Nature-Based Solution (NbS) to climate change.

> Did You Know? > July 26 is celebrated globally as the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem by UNESCO.

1. What are Wetlands?

A wetland is an area of land that is saturated with water—whether salt, fresh, or brackish—either permanently or seasonally.

Critical Functions:

Water Purification: Often called 'Nature’s Kidneys,' they filter sediments, nutrients, and pollutants from surface water.

Flood Mitigation: They act as giant sponges, controlling runoff and absorbing excess water during heavy rains.

Groundwater Recharge: They help replenish underground aquifers by allowing water to slowly seep into the ground.

Biodiversity Hotspots: They provide essential habitats for aquatic flora, fauna, and thousands of migratory bird species.

2. Global Framework: The Ramsar Convention

The Ramsar Convention (1971) is the primary international treaty for the conservation and 'wise use' of wetlands.

Ramsar Sites: Wetlands of international importance. Criteria include supporting threatened species or hosting over 20,000 waterbirds.

Wise Use Principle: Refers to the sustainable utilization of wetlands for the benefit of humankind in a way compatible with maintaining the natural properties of the ecosystem.

Montreux Record: A high-priority register under Ramsar for sites where ecological changes have occurred or are likely to occur due to pollution or human interference.

3. Wetland Conservation in India

India currently has 75 designated Ramsar sites (as of recent milestones), covering a vast range of ecosystems.

Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017:

- Provides the statutory framework for wetland protection in India.

- Mandates the setting up of State Wetland Authorities to decentralize conservation.

- Establishes a National Wetland Committee as an advisory body.

National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): An integrated scheme of MoEFCC to support the implementation of management action plans for over 250 wetlands.

> World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd annually to mark the signing of the Ramsar Convention.

1. India’s Updated NDC Pledges (Target: 2030)

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) represent India's formal commitment to the Paris Agreement.

Emission Intensity: Pledged to reduce the emission intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels).

Non-Fossil Fuel Power: Aiming for 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources.

Carbon Sink: Creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through increased forest and tree cover.

Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE): Promoting sustainable living based on traditions and conservation as a key tool to combat climate change.

2. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

Launched in 2008, the NAPCC outlines a strategy to enable India to adapt to climate change while ensuring ecological sustainability.

Core Principles: Focuses on protecting the poor, achieving growth with sustainability, and accelerated deployment of green technologies.

3. The Eight National Missions

The NAPCC is implemented through eight dedicated missions, each overseen by a specific ministry:

1. National Solar Mission: To establish India as a global leader in solar energy.

2. Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Strengthening the market for energy-efficient products (e.g., PAT scheme).

3. Mission on Sustainable Habitat: Promoting low-carbon urban growth and resilient cities.

4. National Water Mission: Ensuring water conservation and equitable distribution.

5. Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: Monitoring the health of glaciers and forest cover in the Himalayan region.

6. Mission for Green India: Protecting and restoring India’s forest cover.

7. Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Making farming more climate-resilient through integrated systems.

8. Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: Building a dynamic knowledge system to inform national policy.

4. National Climate Vulnerability Assessment

Released by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), this report identifies regions requiring urgent adaptation interventions.

Highly Vulnerable States (2022): Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, and West Bengal.

Regional Trend: The eastern part of India is identified as having the highest vulnerability to current climate risks.

1. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)

Established in 2015-16, this is a Central Sector Scheme designed to bridge the gap between climate theory and concrete action.

Aim: To fund specific adaptation projects that align with the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and State Action Plans (SAPCCs).

Implementation: Projects are executed in sectors like agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, and tourism.

National Implementing Entity (NIE): NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) oversees the fund's management.

2. Long-Term Low-Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS)

India submitted its LT-LEDS at COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh), marking a formal commitment to reach Net-Zero by 2070.

The Four Pillars of India's Strategy:

1. Low historical contribution to global warming.

2. High energy needs for development.

3. Commitment to low-carbon strategies.

4. Urgent need for climate resilience.

3. Key Sectoral Transitions

The LT-LEDS rests on seven critical transitions:

Energy: Expanding renewables, strengthening the grid, and rationalizing fossil fuel use while ensuring energy security.

Transport: Shifting to public transport, electrification of vehicles, and using cleaner fuels.

Urban Design: Building climate-resilient cities with green building codes and efficient liquid/solid waste management.

Industry: Promoting a circular economy, fuel switching, and Green Hydrogen technology, especially for hard-to-abate sectors like steel and cement.

CCUS: Exploring Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage as a vital technology (requires international support).

Forest Cover: Enhancing carbon sinks through forest restoration and managing trees outside forests (TOF).

Finance: Mainstreaming climate-specific finance and pushing for technology transfer from developed nations.

1. Genesis and Vision

Introduced by India at COP26 in Glasgow (2021), Mission LiFE shifts the climate change narrative from policy-only to individual action.

The Goal: To mobilize 1 billion Indians and global citizens by 2027 to take collective action for the environment.

Domestic Target: Making at least 80% of all Indian villages and urban local bodies environment-friendly by 2028.

2. Three-Pronged Strategy

The mission operates through a circular feedback loop involving individuals, markets, and governments:

1. Change in Demand: Nudging individuals to adopt simple, planet-friendly actions in daily life.

- *Examples:Turning off taps, switching off engines at red lights, using cloth bags instead of plastic.

2. Change in Supply: Encouraging industries and markets to adapt and provide sustainable products based on new consumer demands.

- *Examples:Mass production of biodegradable packaging, bamboo products, and eco-friendly textiles.

3. Change in Policy: Influencing long-term government and industrial policies to support sustainable production and consumption.

- *Examples:Subsidies for Electric Mobility, strict regulations on single-use plastics, and green building mandates.

3. Core Approaches

Jan Andolan (Mass Movement): Moving away from 'top-down' environmentalism to a 'bottom-up' grassroots movement.

Global Co-creation: Using a crowdsourced approach to gather best practices from think tanks and universities worldwide.

Cultural Leverage: Tapping into traditional climate-friendly norms (like the Indian 'Pro-Planet' lifestyle) to drive modern behavioral change.

1. Global Innovation Alliances

Mission Innovation: A global initiative launched at COP21 (Paris) consisting of 22 countries and the EU. India is a founding member. It aims to make clean energy affordable and accessible through R&D investment.

Mission Integrated Biorefineries: Launched under Mission Innovation with a specific target: To replace 10% of chemicals, materials, and fossil fuels with bio-based alternatives by 2030.

2. Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022

This Act overhauls the 2001 legislation to align India with its updated NDCs and 'Net Zero' targets.

Carbon Credit Trading: Empowers the Central Government to specify a Carbon Credit Trading Scheme. Crucially, it allows voluntary participation for non-designated consumers.

Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation: Mandates designated consumers (like industries) to use a minimum share of non-fossil energy for power or feedstock.

Building Codes: Updates the 'Energy Conservation Building Code' to the more holistic 'Energy Conservation and Sustainable Building Code'.

Vehicles & Vessels: For the first time, energy consumption standards are extended to transport vehicles (cars, buses) and ships (vessels).

3. Understanding Carbon Markets

Carbon markets put a price on pollution. One Carbon Credit represents one tonne of $CO_2$ (or equivalent) reduced or removed.

Compliance Markets: Officially regulated 'Cap-and-Trade' systems where governments issue limited permits. If an entity exceeds its cap, it must buy more permits.

Voluntary Markets: Private entities buy credits voluntarily to offset their carbon footprint by funding green projects like afforestation.

4. Tradable Certificates in India

1. Renewable Energy Certificate (REC): 1 REC = 1 MWh of renewable energy. Helps states/entities meet their Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO).

2. Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts): Issued under the PAT (Perform, Achieve and Trade) scheme to industries that exceed their energy-saving targets.

1. Understanding EIA

As defined by UNEP, EIA is a tool that predicts the potential impacts of a project—environmental, social, and economic—prior to decision-making.

Primary Objectives:

- To identify potential environmental impacts at an early planning stage.

- To mitigate or reduce adverse effects through project redesign.

- To present clear options and predictions to decision-makers for informed approval.

2. Evolution in India

1976-77: Began as an administrative exercise by the Planning Commission (lacked legislative backing).

1986: The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) and its rules made EIA necessary for project expansion or modernization.

1994: The first formal EIA Notification was issued.

2006: A new notification decentralized the process and categorized projects into 'A' and 'B' types.

3. Categorization and Appraisal Authorities

The 2006 Notification decentralized the environmental clearance (EC) process:

Category A: Appraised at the National Level.

- Authority: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) via the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC).

Category B: Appraised at the State Level.

- Authority: State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC).

4. Stages in the EIA Cycle

1. Screening: Determining if the project requires a full EIA (Only for Category B).

2. Scoping: Determining the specific issues and 'Terms of Reference' (ToR) to be addressed.

3. Public Hearing: Seeking objections and suggestions from the local community and stakeholders.

4. Appraisal: The final evaluation of the EIA report and outcomes of public consultations by the expert committees.

5. Recent Exemptions (2022 Updates)

To facilitate ease of doing business and strategic infrastructure, certain projects are now exempt from Environmental Clearance:

Strategic Highways: Projects within 100 km of the Line of Control (LoC).

Biomass Power: Plants up to 15 MW using biomass or municipal waste (with limited auxiliary fuel).

Fishing Ports: Handling exclusive fish catch for small fishermen.

Toll Plazas: Expansion for widening to cater to high vehicle traffic.

1. The Significance of EIA

EIA is not just a regulatory hurdle; it is a tool for Sustainable Development.

Long-term Growth: It ensures that environmental protection and economic development are addressed simultaneously, ensuring projects are viable in the long run.

Disaster Prevention: By studying topography and hydrology, EIA helps prevent man-made natural calamities like landslides and flash floods.

Democratic Participation: Through Public Hearings, it ensures that the voices of the marginalized and project-affected people are integrated into the decision-making process.

Risk Management: Identifies technological risks and hidden ecological costs before a project starts, saving developers from expensive future legal or remedial actions.

Judicial Efficiency: A robust EIA study minimizes the chances of projects being stalled by courts later, as all environmental concerns are addressed upfront.

2. Structural and Procedural Issues in India

Despite its strong theoretical framework, the implementation of EIA in India faces several hurdles:

The Language Barrier: EIA reports and notifications are often unavailable in local regional languages. This alienates the local community who are most affected by the project.

Information Asymmetry: There is a profound lack of awareness among rural and tribal populations regarding their rights and the technical nuances of the EIA process.

Quality of Reports: Due to a lack of qualified professionals, many EIA reports are 'copy-pasted' or contain significant errors, leading to poor environmental outcomes.

Exploitation of Loopholes: Large corporations often circumvent the process by splitting projects into smaller units to avoid the 'Category A' mandatory clearance or by exploiting the 'B2' exemption list.

Objectivity Concerns: Corruption and conflict of interest (where the developer pays the consultant to prepare the EIA) often compromise the neutrality and accuracy of the assessment.

1. Understanding the Hydrogen Spectrum

Hydrogen is the most abundant element but rarely exists in its pure form. Different 'colors' are assigned based on the production method and carbon footprint:

Green Hydrogen: Produced by splitting water ($H_2O$) via electrolysis using renewable energy . It has zero carbon emissions.

Blue Hydrogen: Derived from natural gas, but the resulting $CO_2$ is captured and stored ( CCUS ).

Grey Hydrogen: Produced from natural gas where $CO_2$ is released into the atmosphere (current dominant method).

Black/Brown Hydrogen: Produced from the gasification of coal.

Pink Hydrogen: Produced using nuclear energy for electrolysis.

2. The National Green Hydrogen Mission

Nodal Ministry: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy ( MNRE ).

SIGHT Programme: (Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition) Provides financial incentives for domestic manufacturing of electrolysers and Green Hydrogen production.

Green Hydrogen Hubs: Identifying specific regions for large-scale production and utilization.

SHIP (Strategic Hydrogen Innovation Partnership): A public-private partnership framework for R&D.

3. Mission Targets & Phases

Target 2030: Production of 5 MMT (Million Metric Tonnes) per annum.

Renewable Capacity: Requires an addition of 125 GW of renewable energy.

Phases:

- Phase I (Up to 2025-26): Focus on demand creation and scaling electrolyser manufacturing.

- Phase II (2026-30): Expansion into 'hard-to-abate' sectors like steel, shipping, and long-haul mobility .

4. Key Milestones & Policy

India’s First Pilot Plant: Commissioned by Oil India Limited (OIL) in Jorhat, Assam (99.999% pure).

Hydrogen Blending: GAIL started a pilot project for mixing hydrogen into natural gas in Indore, MP .

Green Ammonia Policy (2022): Manufacturers can set up renewable capacity anywhere or buy from exchanges with benefits like Inter-State Transmission (ISTS) charge waivers for 25 years.

1. Recent Amendments (Major Shifts)

Accelerated Blending Target: The target of 20% ethanol blending in petrol (E20) has been advanced from 2030 to 2025-26.

Feedstock Expansion: Permission granted to use more diverse feedstocks for biofuel production to ensure a steady supply.

Production & Exports: Biofuel production is now promoted under 'Make in India' in SEZs and Export Oriented Units (EoUs). Specific cases for biofuel exports have also been approved.

Institutional Change: The National Biofuel Coordination Committee (NBCC) has been expanded with new members to streamline cross-departmental action.

2. Classification of Biofuels

Biofuels are categorized based on their source and the technology used to produce them:

1st Generation (1G): Produced from food sources (Sugar, Starch, Vegetable oil). *Example: Ethanol from sugarcane.*

2nd Generation (2G): Produced from non-food crops or agricultural waste (Stems, husks, wood chips). *Example: Ethanol from rice straw.*

3rd Generation (3G): Produced from micro-organisms like Algae which can be grown on non-arable land.

4th Generation (4G): Uses genetically engineered crops/microbes designed to capture high amounts of carbon while growing.

3. Major Government Initiatives

PM JI-VAN Yojana: Financial support for 2G Ethanol projects to create a commercial ecosystem for agricultural waste-to-fuel.

GOBAR-DHAN Scheme: Converts cattle dung and solid waste into Biogas and Bio-CNG, supporting rural income and cleanliness.

RUCO (Repurpose Used Cooking Oil): An FSSAI initiative to collect used cooking oil from restaurants to convert it into Biodiesel, preventing it from entering the food chain.

Greenfield Achievement: India's first grain-based ethanol plant was established in Purnia, Bihar.

1. Why Renewables Matter

Energy security: India imports most of its crude oil and a growing share of coal and gas; domestic renewables reduce import bills.

Climate: Power generation is the largest source of India's CO2 emissions because of coal.

Cost: Solar and wind tariffs discovered in auctions are now competitive with new coal power.

2. Targets and Status

Panchamrit (COP26): 500 GW non-fossil capacity, 50% of energy requirement from renewables, 1 billion tonnes less projected emissions, emission intensity reduction of 45% (over 2005), net zero by 2070 (all by 2030 except net zero).

Updated NDC (August 2022): 45% reduction in emission intensity of GDP by 2030 from 2005 level; about 50% cumulative installed power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.

Milestone: India reported crossing 50% non-fossil share in installed capacity in 2025, ahead of the 2030 date, though coal still provides most of the electricity actually generated.

3. Key Schemes

Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects with ready land and transmission.

PM-KUSUM (2019): Solar pumps and solarisation of agricultural feeders for farmers.

PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana (2024): Rooftop solar for one crore households with up to 300 units of free power a month.

Green Energy Corridors: Transmission lines to evacuate renewable power from resource-rich states.

PLI for high-efficiency solar modules and the ALMM list to build domestic manufacturing.

Offshore wind plans off Gujarat and Tamil Nadu; National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023) uses renewable power for electrolysis.

International Solar Alliance (ISA): Launched by India and France at COP21 (2015); headquartered in Gurugram.

4. Challenges

Intermittency: Solar peaks at midday and stops at night; needs battery and pumped-hydro storage and flexible grids.

DISCOM finances: Loss-making distribution companies delay payments and resist long-term contracts.

Import dependence on China for polysilicon, wafers and cells; critical minerals (lithium) for batteries.

Land and ecology: Large parks compete with grazing land and habitats (e.g. Great Indian Bustard and power lines in Rajasthan).

Just transition for coal-dependent districts in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.

1. Disaster Management Cycle

Pre-disaster: Prevention, mitigation, preparedness (early warning, drills, building codes).

During: Response—search and rescue, evacuation, relief.

Post-disaster: Recovery, rehabilitation and 'Build Back Better' reconstruction.

2. Institutions under the DM Act, 2005

NDMA: Chaired by the Prime Minister; lays down national policy, plans and guidelines.

National Executive Committee: Chaired by the Union Home Secretary; implements the national plan.

SDMA: Chaired by the Chief Minister; DDMA: chaired by the District Collector/Magistrate, with the elected head of the zila parishad as co-chair.

NDRF: Specialised response force drawn from the CAPFs, under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

NIDM: Training, research and capacity building.

Nodal ministry: MHA for most disasters; specific ministries for some (e.g. Agriculture for drought, Health for epidemics).

DM (Amendment) Act, 2025: Gives statutory status to the National Crisis Management Committee and High-Level Committee, provides for Urban Disaster Management Authorities and national/state disaster databases.

3. Plans and Finance

National Disaster Management Plan: First in 2016 (aligned with Sendai), revised in 2019.

Funds: State and National Disaster Response Funds (SDRF/NDRF) and, since the 15th Finance Commission, Mitigation Funds (SDMF/NDMF).

Notified disasters for SDRF/NDRF assistance: cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloudburst, pest attack, frost and cold wave.

4. Sendai Framework (2015–2030)

Adopted at the Third UN World Conference on DRR, Sendai, Japan; successor to the Hyogo Framework (2005–2015).

Four priorities: Understanding disaster risk; strengthening risk governance; investing in DRR for resilience; enhancing preparedness and 'Build Back Better'.

Seven targets, including reducing mortality, affected people, economic loss and damage to critical infrastructure, and increasing early-warning access.

5. India's Global Role

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Launched by India in 2019 at the UN Climate Action Summit.

Odisha's cyclone preparedness (Phailin 2013, Fani 2019) is cited internationally as a model of near-zero-casualty evacuation.