Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Movement — UPSC Modern History Notes

I. Political and Moral Outrage:

The Betrayal (Rowlatt Act, 1919): The Rowlatt Act (detention without trial) was seen as a direct betrayal of India's loyalty during WWI and the promise of the Montagu Declaration, strategically confirming that British policy was rooted in repression.

The Moral Crisis (Jallianwala Bagh, 1919): General Dyer’s brutal firing served as the ultimate moral condemnation of the British Raj, destroying Indian faith in the colonial system's sense of justice and loyalty.

The Whitewash (Hunter Committee): The failure of the Hunter Committee to severely punish Dyer and the subsequent exoneration of officials deepened nationalist anger and proved the British system was incapable of delivering justice.

Limited Reforms (Montford, 1919): The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms disappointed nationalists. The flawed introduction of dyarchy and the extension of separate electorates confirmed that the British intent was still primarily to *divide* and *control*.

II. Socio-Economic and Religious Discontent:

Economic Hardship: Post-WWI widespread inflation, high prices, food shortages, and increased unemployment fueled deep discontent across all social strata (peasants, workers, middle class), creating a ready base for mass mobilization.

The Khilafat Grievance (Religious Outrage): This was the immediate religious trigger for Muslim participation. The harsh Treaty of Sèvres (1920) proposed the dismemberment of the Ottoman Caliphate (Turkey), seen by Indian Muslims as an attack on Islam itself.

Khilafat Committee (1919): Formed in Bombay under the leadership of the Ali brothers (Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, and Hakim Ajmal Khan, its aim was to protect the Caliphate and pressure the British government.

III. Gandhi’s Strategic Merger and Consolidation:

Strategic Opportunity: Gandhi viewed the Khilafat issue as a unique opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity, arguing that supporting the Muslim cause was the duty of Hindus, thus bridging the political gap.

Adoption of NCM (1920): This merger was formalized when the Indian National Congress adopted the Non-Cooperation Programme at its Nagpur Session (December 1920). The Congress formally aligned with the Khilafat leaders.

Legacy: This strategic consolidation achieved the successful linking of diverse classes, regions, and religious communities under a unified political programme and a single methodology (Satyagraha), marking the definitive beginning of the Gandhian mass movement phase in India.

I. Programme and Implementation:

Adoption: The NCM was formally adopted at the Nagpur Session of Congress (December 1920), aligning with Khilafat leaders and adopting a non-violent method for achieving Swaraj .

Boycott & Surrender: The program included the surrender of titles (like 'Sir' and 'Kaiser-i-Hind') and the boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, and foreign cloth. Lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up practice.

Constructive Work: Emphasis was placed on establishing National Educational Institutions (e.g., Jamia Millia Islamia), promoting Khadi and Swadeshi industries, and campaigning for Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability.

Economic Dimension: Organized bonfires of foreign cloth took place, which successfully provided the masses an active role in the movement and hit British imports hard.

II. Mass Participation and Spread:

Unprecedented Unity: The merger with the Khilafat issue cemented Hindu-Muslim unity at the grassroots level, particularly with the active participation of the Ali brothers.

Wider Social Base: The movement spread rapidly beyond urban elites to include peasants in Awadh (under Baba Ramchandra), workers in Assam tea plantations, and local/tribal agitations like the Eka movement (UP).

Women’s Role: Women participated for the first time in large numbers, picketing liquor shops and foreign cloth stores, injecting huge moral force.

Organisational Restructuring: The Nagpur Session also led to the reorganization of the Congress on a provincial linguistic basis, increasing its grassroots reach and making it a true mass party.

III. Withdrawal and Legacy:

Chauri Chaura Incident (February 1922): In Gorakhpur district (UP), protestors clashed violently with police, leading to the death of 22 policemen. Gandhi, distressed by the violence and convinced that the masses were not yet ready for non-violence, suspended the movement immediately.

Government Repression: The British countered the movement with arrests of leaders (including Gandhi later in 1922), police violence, and strict censorship.

Legacy: Despite its abrupt end, the NCM created unprecedented political awakening, spread nationalist ideas to the villages, made Gandhi the supreme leader of Indian politics, and laid the groundwork for future mass struggles (Civil Disobedience, Quit India).

I. Peasant and Agrarian Movements:

Awadh (United Provinces): This region saw intense anti-landlord agitation. Peasants, led by local figures like Baba Ramchandra (a former indentured labourer), demanded the abolition of begar (forced labour), reduction of excessive rents, and the abolition of illegal cesses.

- Linkage: Congress leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and local Kisan Sabhas (Peasant Associations) successfully linked these peasant struggles with the national call for Non-Cooperation and Swaraj.

Bihar (Indigo Cultivators): Peasants faced persistent economic grievances, which they explicitly linked to the national movement, demanding relief from oppressive tenure systems.

Gorakhpur (UP): The localized peasant unrest and police brutality culminated tragically in the Chauri Chaura incident (1922), where the masses crossed the boundary of Gandhian non-violence, forcing the movement's abrupt withdrawal.

II. Tribal and Regional Conflicts:

Andhra Pradesh (Forest Satyagraha): In the coastal districts, tribals and peasants launched Forest Satyagrahas. They directly challenged the colonial Forest Laws, which restricted their traditional rights to grazing, fuel wood cutting, and forest produce.

Malabar (Kerala) - Moplah Uprising (1921): This began as a socio-economic struggle of Muslim Moplah tenant farmers against exploitative Hindu landlords (*jenmis*) and the British officials. Initially integrated into the Khilafat-NCM framework, the movement turned violent and communal after the police crackdown, highlighting the challenge of maintaining non-violence.

Punjab (Akali Movement): The Akali Movement sought to reform the management of Sikh Gurudwaras by removing corrupt, British-backed Mahants (priests). Its strong anti-British character aligned perfectly with the NCM's rejection of colonial authority.

III. Labour and Urban Actions:

Assam (Tea Plantations): Workers in the tea plantations launched strikes demanding better wages and improved working conditions. Many attempted to leave the plantations *en masse* to join the NCM struggle, but they faced severe repression by the colonial police, often supported by the planter class.

I. Causes and Political Fusion:

Agrarian Exploitation: The root cause was the extreme exploitation of the Moplahs (Muslim tenant farmers) by the largely Hindu Jenmis (landlords/Zamindars). Moplahs faced cripplingly high rents, illegal levies (*vasi*), and constant threats of eviction due to the colonial legal structure that favored the Jenmis.

Fusion with Khilafat: The agrarian resentment was mobilized by local leaders under the banner of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements (NCM). The religious fervor associated with the Khilafat cause provided mass mobilization and unity, temporarily merging the local economic struggle with the pan-Indian political demands of Swaraj.

Outbreak: The rebellion was sparked in August 1921 by a police crackdown on Khilafat meetings and the arrest of popular local Khilafat leaders.

II. Nature and Suppression:

Nature of the Uprising: Initially, the rebels' violence was directed solely against the symbols of British authority and exploitative landlords. However, as the movement gained momentum and local Moplah leaders declared 'Khilafat kingdoms,' the violence tragically acquired a communal character, attacking Hindu landlords and, in some areas, forcing conversion, leading to severe communal polarization.

Brutal Suppression: The British responded with extreme ruthlessness. Martial Law was declared, and the suppression involved mass killings, torture, deportations, and forced displacement.

The Wagon Tragedy (1921): The colonial brutality reached a peak with the Wagon Tragedy, where over 60 Moplah prisoners suffocated to death in a closed railway wagon while being transported, highlighting the inhumanity of the British forces.

III. Legacy and Impact on Nationalism:

Challenge to Non-Violence: The violent and communal turn of the Moplah uprising served as a stark precursor to the Chauri Chaura incident. It exposed the volatility of mobilizing deeply rooted economic and religious grievances within the constraints of Gandhian non-violence (Ahimsa).

Alienation of Leadership: The communal violence caused the Congress and Khilafat national leadership to distance themselves from the rebels, weakening the movement.

Communal Polarization: The incident deepened communal distrust in the region, providing a powerful example of how British colonial policy and agrarian tensions could mutually reinforce communal polarization in nationalist politics.

Exposure of Ruthlessness: The brutal suppression highlighted the colonial state’s ruthlessness against armed rebellion, deepening rural resentment in Malabar.

I. Awadh Kisan Movement (1920): Centralized Linkage:

Leader and Issues: Led by Baba Ramchandra , a sanyasi who worked against the oppression of the Taluqdars (landlords). Key issues included High rents, illegal cesses, and the abolition of begar (forced labour).

Connection with Congress: This movement maintained a strong link with the national struggle. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Kisan Sabhas actively intervened, linking peasant demands to the Non-Cooperation Programme and expanding the Congress’ rural base.

Methods and Nature: Peasants adopted largely peaceful rallies and the withholding of rents (No-Rent campaign). They often carried flags inscribed with Gandhi’s name , symbolizing national legitimacy.

Outcome: Strengthened Congress’ rural base but often faced immediate repression.

II. Eka Movement (1921): Autonomous Militancy:

Leader and Issues: Led by Madari Pasi (a lower-caste leader) and supported by small zamindars and lower-caste peasants. Issues focused on resentment against oppressive landlords, moneylenders, and colonial officials.

Autonomy and Methods: The Eka Movement (Unity) was less directly linked to Congress and more autonomous and militant. Peasants swore an oath of unity (eka) in village meetings, pledging to pay only the recorded rent and oppose eviction by force.

Spread: Movement spread to districts like Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur, exhibiting a strong regional character.

Outcome: British repression effectively crushed the movement by 1922, but its success highlighted the growing peasant militancy and class consciousness in the region.

I. Peak Mobilisation and Organisational Consolidation:

Congress Sessions: The Nagpur Session (Dec 1920) formally adopted the NCM and structurally reorganized the Congress on a provincial linguistic basis (opening it to peasants). The Ahmedabad Session (Dec 1921) ratified Gandhi’s leadership and intensified the boycott of foreign cloth and legislative councils.

Widespread Participation (1921): Students left institutions in thousands (e.g., Jamia Millia Islamia founded). Prominent lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up practice. Peasants, tribals, workers, and women joined actively in boycotts, strikes, and picketing.

II. Chauri Chaura and Strategic Withdrawal:

Chauri Chaura Incident (Feb 5, 1922): Location was the Gorakhpur district, United Provinces (UP). Protestors clashed violently with police and set fire to the police station, killing 22 policemen. This was a direct violation of the NCM's core principle.

Gandhi’s Rationale: Gandhi was profoundly distressed, insisting that the masses were not yet adequately trained in the discipline of Ahimsa. He argued that continued violence would only lead to further repression and the defeat of the non-violent ideal.

Bardoli Resolution (Feb 1922): The Congress Working Committee (CWC) met at Bardoli, Gujarat, to formally endorse Gandhi’s controversial decision. The Resolution officially suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Constructive Focus: The Bardoli Resolution reaffirmed Congress’ commitment to non-violence and prioritized the Constructive Programme (promotion of Khadi, removal of untouchability, national education) over active civil disobedience.

III. Impact and Legacy:

Clash with Expediency: Many leaders like C.R. Das and Subhas Bose opposed the withdrawal, calling it premature. The incident established Gandhi’s moral authority as paramount over immediate political gains.

Consolidation of Leadership: The withdrawal cemented Gandhi’s position as the undisputed leader and preserved the credibility of the Satyagraha methodology itself.

Foundation for Future: The movement fundamentally transformed Indian politics by mobilizing a mass base and created a nationwide organizational structure, laying the essential groundwork for future Gandhian struggles.

I. Unprecedented Mass Participation (Successes):

Wider Social Base: Successfully brought in peasants (especially in Awadh under Baba Ramchandra) and workers (strikes in Assam tea plantations, Bombay textile mills), linking anti-rent struggles with Non-Cooperation.

Students and Professionals: Thousands of students left government institutions; lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up legal practice.

Women's Visibility: Urban middle-class women joined picketing of liquor shops and foreign cloth stores; leaders like Basanti Devi inspired participation.

Muslims: Actively joined under Khilafat leadership (Ali brothers, Maulana Azad), strengthening Hindu-Muslim unity .

Economic Support: Businessmen supported swadeshi by investing in Indian industries, banks, and insurance companies.

II. Critical Failures and Weaknesses:

Organizational Weakness: Lack of sustained planning and failure to establish parallel institutions (though national institutions like Jamia Millia Islamia were established).

Challenge to Non-Violence: The Chauri Chaura incident (1922) exposed the difficulty of controlling mass movements within the framework of strict non-violence (Ahimsa).

Communal Tensions: The Moplah Rebellion (1921) highlighted the dangers of communal violence and the fragility of the religious basis of unity.

Abrupt Withdrawal: The suspension after Chauri Chaura led to disappointment among radicals like Subhas Bose and C.R. Das.

Repression: British arrested leaders, censored press, and used brutal force against protests.

III. Enduring Legacy:

Transformation: The movement fundamentally transformed Indian politics into a mass-based struggle, changing the social base of the Congress.

Leadership: Established Gandhi’s supremacy as the undisputed political and moral leader of Indian nationalism.

Foundation: Laid the essential groundwork for future mass movements like the Civil Disobedience Movement, by training a large cadre of volunteers in political action and defiance.

I. Calcutta Special Session (September 1920)

Purpose : Called specifically to decide on the program for the merger of the Khilafat Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) .

President : Presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai .

Core Proposal : Mahatma Gandhi proposed the NCM program (boycott of foreign goods, surrender of titles, and boycott of government institutions, courts, and schools).

Key Opposition : Leaders like C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , B.C. Pal , and Annie Besant strongly objected, mainly over the boycott of Legislative Councils, preferring Council Entry to obstruct the government from within.

Outcome : Passed by a narrow majority, primarily due to the emotional appeal and organizational strength of the Khilafat leaders (like the Ali Brothers) and Gandhi’s personal influence.

II. Suppression under Lord Reading (1921-1926)

Viceroy : Lord Reading (1921-1926), a former Lord Chief Justice, adopted a policy of rigid suppression against the NCM.

Tactics : Used the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) to ban public assemblies and volunteer corps (like the Khilafat Volunteers).

Mass Arrests : Thousands of leaders (including C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , Lala Lajpat Rai ) were arrested by December 1921. Gandhi himself was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to six years.

Specific Repression : Imposed Martial Law during the Moplah Rebellion (1921) in Malabar, and intensified lathi charges after the Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922).

III. Consequence: Formation of Swaraj Party (1923)

Cause : The abrupt withdrawal of the NCM following the Chauri Chaura incident caused disillusionment and an ideological split at the Gaya Session (Dec 1922).

Pro-Changers (Swarajists) : Led by C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary) . They resigned from the Congress and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in January 1923.

Swarajist Goal : To contest the elections under the 1919 Reforms and 'wreck the constitution from within' by creating continuous deadlock in the Councils.

No-Changers : Led by Vallabhbhai Patel , C. Rajagopalachari , and Rajendra Prasad . They insisted on continuing Gandhi's constructive programme (Khadi, removal of untouchability) and boycotting the Councils.

I. The Viceroy's Administration:

Lord Reading served as the Viceroy of India from April 1921 to April 1926 . As a former Lord Chief Justice of England, he represented a subtle shift from outright military repression (like that under Chelmsford) to a more systematic legal and administrative crackdown.

The movement's peak, the Chauri Chaura incident, and its subsequent withdrawal all occurred during his term.

II. Suppression Strategy:

Restrictive Laws : The British government rapidly employed the Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908) and the Seditious Meetings Act to declare public assemblies illegal and ban volunteer corps (including Congress's National Volunteers and Khilafat Volunteers).

Mass Arrests : By December 1921 , thousands of agitators were arrested, including top leaders like C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru , and Lala Lajpat Rai . Mahatma Gandhi was strategically arrested in March 1922 , immediately after the movement's suspension, and sentenced to six years for sedition.

Violent Repression : Police executed lathi charges and firing on protestors. The government imposed Martial Law in Malabar during the Moplah Rebellion (1921) , resulting in severe and indiscriminate repression against the peasant rebels.

Media Censorship : Strict control was implemented over the nationalist press and literature, forcing many papers to shut down to prevent the spread of the movement's message and maintain control over public discourse.

I. Cause of the Split and Ideological Rift:

Disillusionment : The sudden suspension of the NCM following the Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922) led a faction of leaders to feel that direct mass action was either too slow or too volatile.

Ineffective Boycott : They argued that the policy of completely boycotting the Councils, established under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) , had proven ineffective and created a political vacuum.

Gaya Session Rejection : The ' Council Entry ' proposal, strongly advocated by C.R. Das, was ultimately rejected by the majority at the Gaya Session of the INC in December 1922 .

II. 'Pro-Changers' (Swarajists):

Leaders : This group was led by C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary).

Strategy : Their motto was 'Responsive Non-Cooperation'. They planned to participate in the 1923 elections, enter the Legislative Councils, and utilize the legislature as an arena for political struggle. Their goal was not to cooperate but to obstruct government functioning and expose the limitations of the 1919 Reforms.

Formation : C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from the Congress and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in January 1923 .

III. 'No-Changers' (Non-Swarajists):

Leaders : This group was led by staunch Gandhians like Vallabhbhai Patel , C. Rajagopalachari , and Dr. Rajendra Prasad .

Strategy : They insisted on continuing the triple programme outlined by Gandhi: constructive programme (Khadi, removal of untouchability, national education) and maintaining the complete boycott of the Councils. They believed this grassroots work was essential for preparing the masses for the next phase of mass civil disobedience.

IV. Impact and Dual Strategy:

The split divided the political work: the Swarajists kept the movement relevant in the political and intellectual arena (legislatures), while the No-Changers built the grassroots base necessary for future movements.

After his release, Gandhi acknowledged the importance of both factions and brokered an agreement in 1924, allowing Swarajists to work within the Councils without disrupting the Congress organisation.