Defence Technology — UPSC Science & Tech Notes

1. Constitutional & Political Leadership

Supreme Commander: The President of India holds the ceremonial title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.

Raksha Mantri: The Minister of Defence (currently Shri Rajnath Singh in early 2026) is the political head responsible for policy and strategic direction.

Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS): The highest decision-making body for all defence and security matters, chaired by the Prime Minister.

2. The Five Pillars of the MoD

The Ministry operates through five distinct departments, each headed by a Secretary-level officer.

1. Department of Defence (DoD): Deals with defence policy, budget, and acts as the central planner. It is headed by the Defence Secretary (currently Shri Rajesh Kumar Singh).

2. Department of Military Affairs (DMA): Created in 2019 to integrate the Army, Navy, and Air Force. It is uniquely headed by the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) as its ex-officio Secretary.

3. Department of Defence Production (DDP): Focuses on self-reliance and indigenization. It manages DPSUs (like HAL and BEL) and private sector involvement. (Headed by Secretary DDP: Shri Sanjeev Kumar).

4. Department of Defence Research & Development (DRDO): The scientific wing. Headed by the Secretary DRDO & Chairman DRDO (currently Dr. Sameer V. Kamat).

5. Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare (DESW): Dedicated to the health, pension, and resettlement of veterans. (Headed by Secretary DESW: Smt. Sukriti Likhi).

3. High-Level Military Leadership (2026)

The 'Year of Defence Reforms' (2025-26) has emphasized jointness among the services.

Chief of Defence Staff (CDS): General Anil Chauhan acts as the single-point military advisor to the government.

Service Chiefs:

Army: General Upendra Dwivedi.

Navy: Admiral Dinesh K Tripathi.

Air Force: Air Chief Marshal Amar Preet Singh.

1. Classification & Administration

It is vital to distinguish between the Military (under MoD) and CAPFs (under MHA).

Leadership: CAPFs are typically headed by IPS officers (Director Generals), whereas the military is led by commissioned Army/Navy/Air Force officers.

Dual Control (Assam Rifles): This is India's oldest force (1835). It is unique because its administrative control lies with the MHA, but its operational control lies with the Indian Army (MoD).

2. Border Guarding Forces

Each force is assigned to a specific international border to ensure specialized security.

BSF (1965): Guards the Pakistan and Bangladesh borders. Known as 'India's First Line of Defence'.

ITBP (1962): Guards the Indo-China border (LAC) from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh. Specialized in high-altitude mountain warfare.

SSB (1963): Guards the 'open' borders with Nepal and Bhutan. Focuses on preventing cross-border crime and human trafficking.

Assam Rifles: Guards the Indo-Myanmar border and conducts counter-insurgency in the North-East.

3. Internal Security & Specialized Forces

CRPF (1939/1949): The largest CAPF. Its primary role is assisting States in Counter-Insurgency (Naxal areas) and maintaining Law & Order. It includes specialized units like CoBRA (Jungle warfare) and RAF (Riot control).

CISF (1969): Protects critical infrastructure like Airports, Metros, Space Centers (ISRO), and Nuclear Power Plants. Recently, it has started providing security to private sector entities on a payment basis.

NSG (1984): The 'Black Cats'. An elite counter-terrorism unit trained for 'Zero Error' operations, used during events like 26/11.

1. What is a Ballistic Trajectory?

A ballistic trajectory is like throwing a ball; after the initial push (thrust), the object is guided solely by gravity and atmospheric drag.

No Active Propulsion: Once the rocket engines burn out, the missile 'coasts' through space or the atmosphere.

Forces at Play: The path is influenced by the Coriolis Force (due to Earth's rotation), gravity, and air resistance.

Atmospheric Exit: Long-range missiles (ICBMs) leave the Earth's atmosphere and re-enter it at hypersonic speeds during the terminal phase.

2. Classification Based on Range

Ballistic missiles are categorized by the maximum distance they can cover. In 2026, the global standard remains:

Short-Range (SRBM): 300 km to 1,000 km (e.g., Prithvi, Pralay). These are tactical and stay within the atmosphere.

Medium-Range (MRBM): 1,000 km to 3,500 km (e.g., Agni-I, Agni-II).

Intermediate-Range (IRBM): 3,500 km to 5,500 km (e.g., Agni-III, Agni-IV).

Intercontinental (ICBM): 5,500 km+ (e.g., Agni-V, Agni-VI). These can hit targets across continents.

3. Key India-Specific Developments (2026)

MIRV Technology: In March 2024, India successfully tested Mission Divyastra (Agni-V with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles), allowing one missile to hit several targets at once.

Canisterization: Modern Indian missiles are 'canister-based,' meaning they are stored in a sealed container for years and can be launched quickly from road or rail-mobile platforms.

Solid vs Liquid Fuel: India has transitioned almost entirely to solid propulsion for its ballistic missiles, which is safer and faster to launch than liquid-fueled rockets.

1. Flight Characteristics & Technology

Cruise missiles function more like a fighter jet than a rocket. They use Jet Engines (Turbojets or Ramjets) rather than rocket motors for the sustained part of their flight.

Atmospheric Flight: They never leave the Earth's atmosphere.

Terrain Masking: Many modern cruise missiles use 'Terrain Hugging' technology, flying just meters above the ground or sea level to hide behind hills or stay below radar coverage.

Guidance: They are constantly guided throughout their flight using GPS, INS (Inertial Navigation), or TERCOM (Terrain Contour Matching).

2. Classification by Speed

The defining feature of a cruise missile is often its velocity, measured in Mach (speed of sound).

Subsonic (~Mach 0.8): Slower than sound. They are fuel-efficient and have longer ranges. Example: India's Nirbhay.

Supersonic (Mach 2–3): 2 to 3 times faster than sound. These are extremely difficult to intercept. Example: BrahMos (the world's fastest cruise missile).

Hypersonic (Mach 5+): Over 5 times the speed of sound. They combine speed with maneuverability, making current missile defense systems obsolete. Example: BrahMos-II (under development).

3. Comparison of Propulsion Systems

As we move from subsonic to hypersonic, the engine technology changes significantly.

Turbojet: Used in subsonic missiles like Nirbhay.

Ramjet: Used in supersonic missiles like BrahMos; it works by compressing incoming air at high speeds.

Scramjet: (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet) Necessary for hypersonic flight, where combustion happens in a supersonic airflow.

1. Air-to-Air Missiles (AAM): Dominating the Skies

These missiles are launched from fighter jets to destroy enemy aircraft. The crown jewel is the Astra series.

Astra Mk-1: India's first indigenous BVR missile. In 2026, it is the primary weapon for Su-30MKI and LCA Tejas.

Astra Mk-2: Currently undergoing advanced trials, this variant features a dual-pulse motor, extending its range to over 160 km, rivaling the world-renowned Meteor missile.

2. Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAM): The Shield

Designed to intercept aerial threats like drones, missiles, and jets.

Akash-NG (New Generation): Formally inducted into the IAF in 2025-26. It features a much smaller footprint, a better seeker, and uses a canister-based launch for quick reaction.

MRSAM (Barak-8): Jointly developed with Israel, it provides a 70-100 km protective umbrella for Indian Navy ships and ground sites.

3. The Ballistic Backbone: Agni and Prithvi

India's Strategic Forces Command (SFC) manages these nuclear-capable missiles.

Agni-V with MIRV (Mission Divyastra): The 2024 success means India can now launch one Agni-V that carries multiple warheads, each capable of hitting a different city thousands of kilometers apart.

Agni Prime (P): This 'New Generation' missile is replacing the older Agni-I and II. It is canisterized, making it highly mobile and difficult for enemy satellites to track.

4. Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM): The K-Series

Named after Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, these ensure a Second-Strike Capability (the ability to retaliate even if land-based missiles are destroyed).

K-15 (Sagarika): 750 km range; currently deployed on INS Arihant.

K-4: With a 3,500 km range, its successful 2025 trials have enabled INS Arighat to strike distant targets while remaining safely hidden in deep waters.

5. Tactical & Cruise Missiles: Precision and Stealth

Pralay: A surface-to-surface quasi-ballistic missile (150-500 km). It follows a low trajectory and can maneuver in flight, making it nearly impossible for enemy air defenses to shoot down.

LR-LACM: The Long Range Land Attack Cruise Missile (1,500 km) is the indigenous successor to Nirbhay, using the Indian-made Manik Engine.

Nag & Helina: The 'Fire and Forget' anti-tank missiles. Helina (Helicopter-launched) is now fully integrated with Prachand and Dhruv helicopters.

1. The Five Pillars of IGMDP (P-A-T-N-A)

The program was approved on July 26, 1983, to achieve self-reliance in missile technology. A simple acronym to remember these is PATNA :

Prithvi: Short-range Surface-to-Surface ballistic missile. India's first indigenous ballistic missile.

Agni: Originally a technology demonstrator for re-entry, it evolved into a family of surface-to-surface ballistic missiles (MRBM to ICBM).

Trishul: Short-range, low-level Surface-to-Air missile (later used as a tech-base for other systems).

Akash: Medium-range Surface-to-Air missile with multi-target engagement.

Nag: 3rd generation Anti-Tank 'fire and forget' missile.

2. The Agni Family: From Regional to Global Reach

The Agni series is the backbone of India's nuclear deterrence. By 2026, the series has moved from open-launch to stealthy, canisterized versions.

Agni-I to III: Focused on regional deterrence (700km to 3,000km).

Agni-IV: Introduced modern ring laser gyros and composite rocket motors for high precision.

Agni-V (ICBM): A 3-stage solid-fuel missile with a range over 5,000 km. It features Canister-launch technology, allowing it to be stored for years and launched quickly from anywhere in India.

Mission Divyastra (2024): India integrated MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle) technology into Agni-V, allowing a single missile to strike multiple targets simultaneously.

3. Prithvi: The Battlefield Workhorse

It was the first missile to be developed under the program.

Variants: Prithvi-I (Army), Prithvi-II (Air Force), and Dhanush/Prithvi-III (Navy).

It uses liquid propulsion, though newer tactical missiles like Pralay (introduced post-IGMDP) are now shifting toward solid fuel for faster deployment.

1. Technological Architecture

BrahMos operates on a 'Fire and Forget' principle, meaning once it is launched, it navigates itself to the target with pin-point accuracy.

Two-Stage Propulsion: It uses a Solid Propellant booster for the first stage (to gain initial speed) and a Liquid Ramjet for the second stage (to sustain supersonic speeds).

Speed (Mach 2.8): It travels at nearly 3 times the speed of sound. This speed gives it massive kinetic energy, allowing it to penetrate heavy armor on ships or reinforced bunkers.

Stealth & Low Flight: It features 'Sea-skimming' capability, flying as low as 3–4 meters above the water to avoid radar detection.

2. Range Extension & MTCR

Original Constraint: Initially, the range was capped at 290 km due to MTCR (Missile Technology Control Regime) guidelines which restricted the transfer of long-range missile tech to non-member countries.

The Shift: After India became a full member of MTCR in 2016, ISRO and DRDO successfully extended the range. By 2026, variants with ranges of 450 km to 800 km (BrahMos-ER) are already being tested and inducted.

3. Universal Launch Capability

BrahMos is one of the few missiles in the world that can be launched from almost any platform:

Land: Mobile Autonomous Launchers (MAL).

Sea: From surface ships and vertically from submarines.

Air: A specialized version (BrahMos-A) is integrated with the Su-30 MKI. At 2.5 tonnes, it is the heaviest weapon carried by this fighter jet.

1. Towed Howitzers: The Heavy Hitters

These are the traditional big guns pulled by trucks, essential for high-altitude defense.

Dhanush (155mm/45 cal): Known as the 'Desi Bofors,' it is the first indigenous 155mm gun. In 2026, it features improved Automatic Gun Alignment and an electronic sighting system.

Sharang: A brilliant example of 'circular economy' in defense; older 130mm Soviet-era guns were up-gunned to 155mm, increasing their range from 27 km to 39 km with modern ammunition.

M777 (Ultra-Light Howitzer): Made of titanium, it weighs only 4 tonnes. This makes it heli-liftable by Chinook helicopters, allowing it to be deployed in inaccessible mountain peaks in minutes.

2. Self-Propelled & Rocket Artillery: High Mobility

Modern warfare requires guns that can 'shoot and scoot' to avoid enemy counter-fire.

K9-Vajra-T (155mm/52 cal): A 50-tonne tracked monster. Originally for deserts, ISRO and DRDO modified its engine and winterization kits for Ladakh (High Altitude) deployment. It can turn 360° at its own spot (Zero Radius).

Pinaka (MBRL): Unlike guns, this is a rocket system. In 2026, the Guided Pinaka is the mainstay, providing a range of 75-90 km with pin-point accuracy using the NavIC satellite system.

3. The Future: ATAGS and MGS

ATAGS (Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System): Developed by DRDO, this is one of the world's longest-range guns (48 km). In 2026, it is being mass-produced for the Army.

Mounted Gun Systems: To replace towed guns, the Army is moving toward guns mounted on 8x8 trucks for faster deployment on highways.

1. The MiG-21: 'The Supersonic Pioneer'

The MiG-21 (Mikoyan-Gurevich) was India's first supersonic fighter, serving as the backbone of the IAF for over six decades.

Legacy: Inducted in 1963, it was the first aircraft India manufactured under license-build rights. It played hero roles in the 1971 and 1999 wars.

Retirement Status (2026): As of early 2026, the IAF has fully retired all MiG-21 'Bison' squadrons. The last ceremonial flight took place in late 2025, marking the end of an era.

The Successor: The LCA Tejas has officially taken over the roles previously held by the MiG-21.

2. Mirage-2000: The 'Vajra' of Balakot

Manufactured by France's Dassault Aviation, the Mirage-2000 is a delta-wing, multi-role fighter known for its exceptional precision.

Combat History: It was the game-changer in the Kargil War (1999) by dropping laser-guided bombs at high altitudes and was the primary platform for the 2019 Balakot Airstrikes.

Upgrade: Under a 2011 contract, the fleet was upgraded to the 2000-5 Mk standard, featuring advanced glass cockpits, sophisticated radars (RDY-2), and modern electronic warfare suites.

Current Status (2026): To maintain the fleet until the 2030s, India recently procured retired airframes from France to use as 'spares' to keep the existing squadrons airworthy.

3. The 2026 Fleet Composition

The IAF today operates a 'High-Medium-Low' mix of aircraft to ensure air superiority.

High-End: Rafale (4.5 Gen) and Su-30 MKI (Air dominance).

Medium/Multi-role: Mirage-2000 and MiG-29 (UPG).

Light/Indigenous: LCA Tejas Mk-1A (Mass production phase in 2026).

1. SEPECAT Jaguar (Shamsher): The Deep Penetrator

Known as the 'Sword of Justice' (Shamsher), the Jaguar remains India's primary dedicated ground-attack aircraft, despite being retired by all other nations.

The Spares Crisis (2026): As of January 2026, India is the only operator left. To keep the fleet flying until 2035, the IAF is acquiring retired airframes from Ecuador, Oman, and France to harvest spare parts (cannibalization).

DARIN III Upgrade: This modernization has given the Jaguar 'new eyes,' including AESA radars and an advanced glass cockpit, allowing it to perform precision-guided bombing in all weather conditions.

The Engine Issue: While avionics are modern, the aircraft remains 'underpowered.' A planned engine replacement with Honeywell F125IN was cancelled due to high costs; instead, the IAF is focusing on lightweight precision munitions.

2. Sukhoi Su-30MKI: The 'Super Sukhoi' Era

The Su-30MKI is the most numerous fighter in the IAF (~260+ jets). In February 2026, the 'Super Sukhoi' modernization program has finally received the green light.

Super Sukhoi Upgrade (2026): 84 jets are being upgraded with the indigenous Virupaksha AESA Radar, a new electronic warfare (EW) suite, and a state-of-the-art mission computer. This effectively turns it into a 4.5+ generation jet.

Maritime Role: Modified Su-30s carry the BrahMos-A missile, making them lethal against aircraft carriers and warships up to 400 km away.

Super-maneuverability: Its unique combination of canards and thrust-vectoring nozzles allows it to perform the 'Pugachev's Cobra' maneuver, giving it an edge in close-range dogfights.

3. Comparison of Roles

Jaguar: Specializes in Low-level penetration. It flies close to the ground to avoid radar and strike strategic targets like airbases and command centers.

Su-30MKI: An Air Superiority fighter. It is designed to clear the skies of enemy jets and provide cover for ground attackers like the Jaguar.

1. Rafale: The 'Omnirole' Game Changer

The Rafale is not just a multi-role jet; it is 'omnirole,' meaning it can perform multiple mission types (strike, reconnaissance, combat) simultaneously.

Current Fleet: 36 jets (2 squadrons) are fully operational at Ambala and Hasimara. They were recently utilized in high-altitude drills near the northern borders.

The 114 Jet Deal (MRFA): On February 12, 2026, the Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) accorded 'Acceptance of Necessity' (AoN) for 114 additional Rafales. 18 will be 'off-the-shelf' while 96 will be Made in India by Tata Advanced Systems.

Naval Variant (Rafale-M): 26 units were formally signed for in 2025 to operate from INS Vikrant and INS Vikramaditya, with deliveries starting in 2028.

India-Specific Enhancements (ISE): Includes cold-start capability for Leh, helmet-mounted displays, and integration of the Astra and BrahMos-NG missiles.

2. LCA Tejas: The Indigenous Shield

Tejas has transitioned from a development project to the backbone of the IAF's numerical strength.

Tejas Mk-1A Status (Feb 2026): After delays in GE-F404 engines, HAL has confirmed the first batch of 5 jets is ready for delivery by March 2026. An additional 9 airframes are built and awaiting engines.

Orders: Total orders for Mk-1A now stand at 180 jets (83 from the 2021 deal and 97 approved in late 2025).

Key Upgrades: Features the indigenous UTTAM AESA Radar, a self-protection jammer (Swayam Raksha Kavach), and significantly improved maintainability.

3. Future Roadmap: Tejas Mk-2 and AMCA

Tejas Mk-2: The first prototype is expected to roll out by late 2026. It will be a larger, 17.5-tonne jet with a more powerful GE-F414 engine.

AMCA (5th Gen Stealth): The Cabinet approved the project in 2024. Prototype construction has started, with a rollout target of 2027. It features an internal weapons bay and stealth geometry.

1. Strategic Transport: C-17 Globemaster III

The C-17 is the ultimate heavy-lifter, capable of transporting tanks and large troops to forward bases with short runways.

Fleet Size (2026): India operates a fleet of 11 C-17 Globemasters, the largest fleet outside the US. These are maintained through a techno-logistics support deal with Boeing.

Operational Role: Critical for 'Strategic Reach,' these aircraft were instrumental in Operation Sindoor (2025) and humanitarian missions, delivering over 77 tonnes of payload per flight.

Forward Landing: Frequently utilized for landings on Emergency Landing Facilities (ELFs), including the newly inaugurated highway airstrip in Assam near the China border (Feb 12, 2026).

2. Tactical Transport: C-130J Super Hercules

Known for its agility, the C-130J is the 'first responder' for Special Forces insertions and disaster relief.

Current Fleet: The IAF operates 12 C-130J Super Hercules aircraft. As of early 2026, they are being supported by a new MRO (Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul) facility in Bengaluru.

Indigenous Hub: In Dec 2025, Lockheed Martin announced a co-production hub in India (partnered with Tata) to build C-130Js locally, significantly boosting 'Aatmanirbhar Bharat'.

Special Ops: These are the primary platforms for Garud Special Forces for night-vision, short-runway assault landings.

3. Attack Aviation: AH-64E Apache Guardian

The Apache is a flying tank, designed to hunt and destroy enemy armor in all-weather conditions.

Dual Service Fleet (2026): India now operates a total of 28 Apaches.

IAF: 22 AH-64E units (active in Ladakh and Western sectors).

Indian Army: 6 AH-64E units (newly inducted into the 451 Army Aviation Squadron in Jodhpur as of Dec 2025).

Capabilities: Equipped with Longbow Radar, Hellfire missiles, and the ability to control Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) directly from the cockpit.

1. Light Utility Helicopters (LUH): The Cheetah/Chetak Successor

The effort to replace the aging Cheetah and Chetak fleet (often called 'flying coffins' due to their age) has pivoted away from Russia.

The Kamov Ka-226T Status: The $1 billion deal for 200 helicopters was officially shelved in late 2023/2024 due to disagreements over technology transfer and sanctions. In late 2025, Russia attempted to revive it with a new VK-650V engine, but India is now prioritizing its own design.

HAL LUH (2026 Status): The indigenous 3-tonne LUH has completed all high-altitude trials. As of February 2026, HAL has started deliveries of the Limited Series Production (LSP) units. It features a glass cockpit and is optimized for the 'hot and high' conditions of the Himalayas.

2. S-400 Triumf: Closing the Shield

The S-400 remains the most potent long-range SAM system in the world, capable of tracking 100 targets simultaneously.

Delivery Update (Feb 2026): Out of the 5 squadrons contracted, 3 are fully deployed along the Northern and Western borders. These systems proved decisive during Operation Sindoor (May 2025).

Timeline: The 4th squadron is expected by June 2026 and the 5th (final) by November 2026.

Integration: It is now integrated into the IACCS (Integrated Air Command and Control System), allowing it to talk to indigenous systems like Akash and MRSAM.

3. Aircraft Carriers: Projecting Power

India currently operates a two-carrier fleet, providing dominance in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

INS Vikrant (IAC-1): Commissioned in 2022, it achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) in late 2024. As of early 2026, it is the star of the International Fleet Review (IFR 2026) in Visakhapatnam.

The Air Wing: Currently operates MiG-29K, but a ₹63,000 crore deal for 26 Rafale-M (Marine) was signed in 2025 to replace the MiGs by 2028-2030.

IAC-2 (INS Vishal/Repeat Vikrant): In late 2025, the government cleared the proposal for a second indigenous carrier (a repeat of the Vikrant design with more indigenous tech) rather than a larger 65,000-tonne ship.

1. T-90 Bhishma: The Desert Predator

The T-90 Bhishma remains the mainstay of India's strike corps. In 2026, it is getting a 'heart transplant' to improve its performance in the mountains.

Engine Upgrade (Jan 2026): The Ministry of Defence (MoD) has cleared funds for a new 1,350 HP engine to replace the current 1,000 HP version. This is specifically designed to solve the 'oxygen thinning' problem in Ladakh and Sikkim.

Modernization: The fleet is being equipped with indigenous Software Defined Radio (SDR) and 3rd-generation thermal sights (TISH) for better night fighting.

2. Arjun Mk-1A: The Indigenous Behemoth

The Arjun Mk-1A is India's most advanced and heaviest indigenous tank, weighing 68.5 tonnes.

Induction Status (2026): After the 2021 order for 118 tanks, the first batch has been fully inducted into the 75th Armoured Regiment. It was a highlight of the January 26, 2026, Republic Day Parade.

Key Upgrades: Features 14 major improvements over the older Mk-1, including Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA), an improved hunter-killer sight, and a laser warning system.

3. Zorawar Light Tank: The Himalayan Guard

Specifically designed for the China border (LAC) after the 2020 standoff, the 25-tonne Zorawar is the 'star' of 2026.

Trials (Feb 2026): The DRDO-L&T developed prototype is currently undergoing High-Altitude User Trials in Ladakh. It is expected to enter production by 2027.

Tech Stack: It features Drone Integration (a built-in launchable drone for scouting), loitering munitions, and AI-powered fire control.

Amphibious: Unlike the heavy T-90s, Zorawar can swim across the high-altitude lakes of Eastern Ladakh.

4. FRCV (Project Ranjit): The Future of 2030

The Goal: To replace the 2,400 aging T-72 Ajeya tanks with a world-class 'Next-Gen' MBT.

Status: The project (worth ₹57,000 crore) received Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) in late 2024. In 2026, the shortlisting of private Indian firms for prototype development is in the final stages.

1. The Global Giants: MQ-9B Predator Deal

In early 2026, the ₹32,000+ crore deal for 31 MQ-9B Sky/Sea Guardian drones is in the implementation phase.

Distribution: 15 drones for the Navy (SeaGuardian) and 8 each for the Army and Air Force (SkyGuardian).

MRO Hub: A significant part of the deal includes General Atomics setting up a Global Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India, making India a regional drone service hub.

Strategic Edge: These drones provide 35+ hours of endurance at 50,000 feet, allowing 'continuous' monitoring of the Indian Ocean and the LAC.

2. Indigenous MALE UAVs: Tapas (Rustom-II)

The Tactical Airborne Platform for Aerial Surveillance (TAPAS-BH-201) remains India's primary indigenous effort in the Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) category.

Current Status (2026): After being demoted from 'Mission Mode' in 2024 due to altitude shortfalls (reaching 28,000 ft instead of the required 30,000 ft), the project has been revived as a surveillance-first platform.

Capabilities: It features SATCOM-enabled Beyond Line-of-Sight (BLOS) control and is currently undergoing final user trials with the Indian Navy for coastal monitoring.

3. Project Ghatak: The Stealth Assassin

Ghatak is India’s secret program to build a high-speed, autonomous stealth combat drone (UCAV).

Engine Certification (2026): A strict MoD deadline has seen the Dry Kaveri Engine undergo final certification in 2026. This clears the path for the rollout of a full-scale 13-ton prototype.

SWiFT: The 'Stealth Wing Flying Testbed' (a smaller version) has already proven the 'flying wing' design's stability, which is essential for radar-evading stealth.

4. The Private Sector & Swarm Drones

Drishti-10 Starliner: In 2025-26, the Navy and Army began inducting the Drishti-10 (based on the Israeli Hermes 900), manufactured in Hyderabad by Adani Defence.

Swarm Drones: Startups like NewSpace Research and ideaForge are supplying swarm drone systems that can overwhelm enemy air defenses using AI-driven coordinated flight.

1. Why Indigenise

Strategic autonomy: Imports leave India exposed to sanctions and supply cut-offs during conflict (lessons from Kargil and the Russia–Ukraine war's impact on spares).

Economy: Saves foreign exchange, creates high-skill jobs and spin-off technologies.

Exports and diplomacy: Defence exports build partnerships (e.g. BrahMos missiles to the Philippines, Pinaka rockets to Armenia).

2. Policy Measures

Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020: Highest priority to 'Buy (Indian-IDDM)'—Indigenously Designed, Developed and Manufactured.

Positive Indigenisation Lists: Items that can be bought only from Indian sources after set timelines (issued by the Department of Military Affairs and for DPSU components).

Domestic budget share: A large share of the capital acquisition budget (75% in 2023-24) earmarked for domestic industry.

FDI: Up to 74% through the automatic route and beyond with government approval (2020).

iDEX (2018): Innovations for Defence Excellence—grants to start-ups and MSMEs; Technology Development Fund.

Defence Industrial Corridors in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (2018).

Corporatisation of the Ordnance Factory Board into seven DPSUs (2021).

SRIJAN portal for indigenisation of imported items.

3. Achievements

Light Combat Aircraft Tejas, INS Vikrant (first indigenous aircraft carrier, commissioned 2022), nuclear submarine INS Arihant, Akash air defence, Pinaka, Advanced Light Helicopter, Arjun tank, artillery guns (ATAGS, Dhanush).

Defence production and exports have risen to record levels in recent years.

4. Challenges

Critical technologies: Jet engines (Kaveri programme), advanced sensors and semiconductors still imported.

R&D: Low spending; DRDO projects face delays and cost overruns.

Procurement: Slow processes, frequent changes in requirements, limited role for the private sector historically.

Import content: Many 'indigenous' platforms depend on imported sub-systems.

5. Way Forward

Long-term orders to give industry confidence, co-development with partners (e.g. jet engine collaboration), private sector participation in design, testing infrastructure, and a stable export-promotion policy.

1. Evolution

1967: Peasant uprising at Naxalbari led by Charu Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal and Jangal Santhal.

1980s–90s: People's War Group (Andhra Pradesh) and Maoist Communist Centre (Bihar).

2004: Merger into the CPI (Maoist); the 'Red Corridor' stretched across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.

2009: CPI (Maoist) banned under the UAPA; PM Manmohan Singh had called Naxalism the 'single biggest internal security challenge' (2006).

2. Causes

Land and forests: Land alienation, poor implementation of land reforms, denial of forest rights, displacement by mining and dams.

Governance deficit: Absence of the state—schools, health, roads, justice—in remote tribal areas; exploitation by contractors and officials.

Socio-economic: Poverty, unemployment, caste and tribal marginalisation.

Geography: Dense forests and hilly terrain (e.g. Abujhmarh, Dandakaranya) aid guerrilla warfare.

3. Government Strategy

National Policy and Action Plan (2015): Security, development, rights of local communities and public perception management.

SAMADHAN doctrine (2017): Smart leadership, Aggressive strategy, Motivation and training, Actionable intelligence, Dashboard-based KPIs, Harnessing technology, Action plan for each theatre, No access to financing.

Security: CRPF's CoBRA battalions, state forces such as Andhra's Greyhounds, fortified police stations, drones and better intelligence; choking of finances.

Development: Road Requirement Plan, mobile towers, Special Central Assistance, Eklavya Model Residential Schools, Aspirational Districts Programme, skill development.

Rights: PESA Act, 1996 and Forest Rights Act, 2006 implementation; surrender and rehabilitation policies.

Courts: In Nandini Sundar v. State of Chhattisgarh (2011), the Supreme Court declared the state-backed Salwa Judum and the use of untrained 'Special Police Officers' unconstitutional.

4. Trends

Violence and the number of affected districts have fallen sharply since the peak around 2010; the movement is now confined to a few core areas, mainly in Chhattisgarh's Bastar region.

5. Way Forward

Sustain security gains with trust-building, effective land and forest rights, local recruitment, grievance redress, and development that does not displace tribal communities without consent.

1. Forms of Terrorism in India

Cross-border, state-sponsored terrorism: Groups such as Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed operating from Pakistan—Parliament attack (2001), Mumbai (26/11, 2008), Pathankot and Uri (2016), Pulwama (2019), Pahalgam (April 2025).

Insurgency: Ethnic and separatist groups in the North-East (declined significantly after peace accords).

Left Wing Extremism (treated separately).

Radicalisation and lone actors: Online propaganda by global groups like ISIS.

Narco-terrorism: Drug money funding militancy, especially across the Punjab border.

2. State and Non-State Actors

State actors use proxies to wage low-cost 'war by a thousand cuts'; non-state actors include terror groups, insurgents, organised crime and transnational networks.

New tools: drones dropping weapons and drugs, encrypted apps, cryptocurrencies, deepfakes.

3. Legal Framework

UAPA, 1967: Main anti-terror law; amended in 2004, 2008, 2012 and 2019 (allows individuals to be designated as terrorists).

Earlier laws: TADA (1985–95) and POTA (2002–04), repealed after misuse.

NIA Act, 2008 (amended 2019 to cover offences against Indians abroad, cyber terrorism, human trafficking).

PMLA, 2002 and FICN laws against terror financing.

4. Institutions

NIA, Intelligence Bureau and Multi-Agency Centre, NATGRID, NSG (1984), RAW for external intelligence, state Anti-Terrorism Squads, and the armed forces for cross-border response.

5. International Efforts

India proposed the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) at the UN in 1996—still stalled over the definition of terrorism.

UNSC 1267 sanctions listings; FATF pressure (Pakistan was on the grey list 2018–22); 'No Money for Terror' ministerial conference in New Delhi (2022).

6. Way Forward

Real-time intelligence sharing between Centre and states, police modernisation, counter-radicalisation and de-radicalisation programmes, swift trials, protection of civil liberties to avoid alienation, and sustained diplomatic pressure on state sponsors.

1. Land Borders

Bangladesh (about 4,096 km, longest): Riverine and porous; illegal migration, cattle and drug smuggling, fake currency; guarded by BSF. Land Boundary Agreement implemented in 2015 (100th Amendment).

China (about 3,488 km): Undemarcated Line of Actual Control; incursions (Doklam 2017, Galwan 2020); guarded by ITBP with the Army.

Pakistan (about 3,323 km): International Border and Line of Control; infiltration, cross-border firing, drones dropping weapons and narcotics; guarded by BSF (IB) and the Army (LoC).

Nepal (about 1,751 km) and Bhutan (about 699 km): Open borders under friendship treaties; misuse by criminals and insurgents; guarded by SSB.

Myanmar (about 1,643 km): Hilly, forested; ethnic ties across the border, insurgent camps, drug trafficking from the Golden Triangle; guarded by Assam Rifles. India decided in 2024 to fence the border and end the Free Movement Regime.

2. Maritime Borders

Coastline traditionally measured at 7,516 km (about 11,098 km under a revised methodology in 2024); threats include sea-borne terrorism (26/11), smuggling and illegal fishing.

Three-tier security: Navy, Coast Guard (1978) and marine police; coastal radar chain and Information Fusion Centre–Indian Ocean Region (Gurugram).

3. Institutional Framework

Kargil Review Committee (1999) and the Group of Ministers (2001) recommended the 'one border, one force' principle and a separate Department of Border Management (2004).

Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS): Technology-based surveillance (e.g. BOLD-QIT on the riverine Brahmaputra stretch in Dhubri, Assam).

Integrated Check Posts under the Land Ports Authority of India (2012) for trade and travel.

4. Border Area Development

Border Area Development Programme; Vibrant Villages Programme (2023) for villages along the northern border, extended to other borders in 2025; border roads by the BRO.

5. Challenges and Way Forward

Difficult terrain, incomplete fencing in riverine stretches, coordination between multiple agencies, local populations' livelihoods across borders, and new threats like drones.

Way forward: Smart fencing and anti-drone systems, better infrastructure on the China border, cooperation with neighbours on smuggling and insurgency, and involving border communities as the 'eyes and ears' of security.

1. Forms of Organised Crime

Drug trafficking: India lies between the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan–Iran–Pakistan) and the Golden Triangle (Myanmar–Laos–Thailand); synthetic drugs and sea routes are rising.

Human trafficking for forced labour and sexual exploitation; cyber-slavery compounds in South-East Asia.

Arms smuggling and drones dropping weapons across the border.

Fake Indian Currency Notes (FICN), hawala networks, gold smuggling.

Cyber fraud rings, extortion gangs, contract killings, land and sand mafias, wildlife trafficking.

2. Crime–Terror Nexus

1993 Mumbai serial blasts: Organised crime network (D-Company) used for a terror attack.

Narco-terrorism: Drug money funds militancy in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir; insurgent groups in the North-East run extortion networks.

Terror groups use criminal logistics (smuggling routes, forged documents); criminals use terror groups' protection.

3. Legal Framework

Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: Section 111 (organised crime) and Section 112 (petty organised crime).

State laws: Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA, 1999), Karnataka's KCOCA, Gujarat's GCTOC Act (2019).

NDPS Act, 1985, PMLA, 2002, Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, UAPA for terror links.

International: UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (Palermo Convention, 2000), ratified by India in 2011.

4. Agencies

Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), Enforcement Directorate (ED), NIA, CBI, Wildlife Crime Control Bureau, state police and Anti-Human Trafficking Units.

5. Challenges

Political and police nexus with gangs; witness intimidation; low conviction rates; transnational operations beyond Indian jurisdiction; use of technology and cryptocurrency.

6. Way Forward

Specialised investigation and prosecution units, financial intelligence to follow the money, witness protection (Witness Protection Scheme, 2018), international cooperation through MLATs and extradition, and drug demand reduction (Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan).