Indian & Physical Geography · UPSC Notes
Population, Migration and Urbanisation — UPSC Geography Notes
Free, exam-focused notes for UPSC Prelims and Mains, with Prelims tips and Mains points for every topic. 2 topics.
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Migration in India: Types, Causes and Consequences
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another to live or work. The Census 2011 counted about 45 crore internal migrants (by place of last residence)—over a third of the population. Most moves are short-distance and rural-to-rural, with marriage the main reason for women and work for men; long-distance labour migration to cities sustains the economy but leaves migrants with weak social protection, as the 2020 COVID-19 exodus exposed.
1. Types of Migration
By distance: Intra-district, inter-district, inter-state, international.
By streams: Rural→rural (largest, mostly women after marriage), rural→urban, urban→urban, urban→rural.
By duration: Permanent, semi-permanent, seasonal/circular (e.g. brick kilns, sugarcane cutting, construction).
By choice: Voluntary (economic opportunity) and forced (conflict, disasters, development-induced displacement).
2. Causes – Push and Pull
Push factors: Low farm incomes, small holdings, unemployment, droughts and floods, debt, caste discrimination, conflict.
Pull factors: Jobs and higher wages in cities and industrial regions, education, health care, social networks.
Theories: Ravenstein's 'laws of migration' (1885)—most migrants move short distances, in steps, towards large centres; Everett Lee's push–pull model (1966).
3. Major Corridors
Origin states: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand; destination states and cities: Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Punjab.
The Economic Survey 2016-17, using railway data, estimated around 9 million inter-state migrants a year.
4. Consequences
Positive: Remittances to source regions, labour for growth centres, skill and idea transfer, social mobility, women's autonomy in some cases.
Negative: Informal, insecure work; poor housing in slums; exclusion from local welfare; family separation and left-behind elderly and children; pressure on urban services; sons-of-the-soil tensions.
Demographic: Imbalanced sex ratios in source and destination areas.
5. Policy Responses
One Nation One Ration Card (portable food rations), e-Shram portal (2021) registering unorganised workers, Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (2020).
Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 has been subsumed in the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020.
Portability of welfare, voting rights for migrants (remote voting proposals) and better data are pending issues.
6. Emerging Trends
Climate-induced migration from drought-prone and coastal areas; growing female labour migration; international migration to the Gulf and developed countries (see the diaspora topic in Economics).
| Stream | Main features |
|---|---|
| Rural → rural | Largest stream; dominated by women migrating after marriage |
| Rural → urban | Work-related, mostly men; drives urban growth |
| Urban → urban | Professionals and skilled workers between cities |
| Urban → rural | Return migration, retirement, distress (e.g. 2020 lockdown) |
Prelims tips
- Census 2011 recorded about 45 crore internal migrants by place of last residence.
- Marriage is the leading reason for migration among women; employment among men.
- Ravenstein formulated the 'laws of migration' (1885).
- e-Shram portal for unorganised workers was launched in 2021.
- Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 is now part of the OSH Code, 2020.
Mains points
- Migration is a livelihood strategy and a driver of growth, not a problem to be stopped; policy should make it safe and rewarding.
- The 2020 exodus revealed migrants' invisibility in data and exclusion from welfare tied to domicile.
- Portability of entitlements (rations, health, education, voting) is central to migrant inclusion.
- Balanced regional development and rural non-farm jobs reduce distress migration.
- Climate change will increase migration; planning must anticipate it rather than react.
Did you know?
- Kerala calls inter-state migrant workers 'guest workers' (athithi thozhilali) and runs welfare schemes for them.
- The Census measures migration in two ways: by place of birth and by place of last residence.
- Seasonal migrants are often missed by surveys because they are away from home only part of the year.
Urbanisation in India: Patterns and Problems
India's urban population was about 31% in Census 2011 (37.7 crore people) and is projected to approach two-fifths by the mid-2030s. Urbanisation is driven by natural growth, migration and the reclassification of villages as towns—the number of census towns nearly tripled between 2001 and 2011. Cities drive growth but face slums, congestion, pollution, water stress and flooding, and urban living is reshaping families, caste and gender relations.
1. What Counts as Urban (Census)
Statutory towns: Places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area.
Census towns: Places with a population of at least 5,000, at least 75% of male main workers in non-agricultural work, and density of at least 400 persons per sq km—still governed by panchayats. Their number rose from 1,362 (2001) to 3,894 (2011).
Urban agglomerations and million-plus cities (53 in 2011).
2. Patterns
Most urbanised states (2011): Goa, Mizoram, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra; least urbanised: Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Odisha.
Growth concentrated in large metros and their peripheries, with rising peri-urban sprawl.
Projection: The Technical Group on Population Projections (2020) projects the urban share at about 39% by 2036.
3. Drivers
Natural increase in cities, rural–urban migration, reclassification of rural settlements, and expansion of municipal boundaries.
4. Problems
Housing: Slums—about 6.5 crore people lived in slums (Census 2011).
Infrastructure: Water supply, sewerage, solid waste and public transport lag behind growth.
Environment: Air pollution, urban heat islands, urban floods, loss of wetlands and green cover.
Governance: Weak urban local bodies, parastatal fragmentation, low municipal revenue; census towns governed as villages lack urban planning.
Informality: Much urban employment is informal and insecure.
5. Social Change in Cities
Shift from joint to nuclear families; more women in education and work but also safety concerns; anonymity weakens some caste practices, though residential segregation and caste-based networks persist; rise of new middle classes and consumer culture; loneliness and care challenges for the elderly.
6. Way Forward
Plan for small and medium towns, not just metros; empower ULBs (74th Amendment); integrated land-use and transport planning; affordable rental housing; climate-resilient infrastructure; better urban data and recognising census towns as urban for planning.
| Indicator | 2001 | 2011 |
|---|---|---|
| Urban population share | 27.8% | 31.1% |
| Census towns | 1,362 | 3,894 |
| Million-plus cities/UAs | 35 | 53 |
Prelims tips
- Census town criteria: population ≥5,000; ≥75% male main workers non-agricultural; density ≥400/sq km.
- Census 2011 urban share: about 31.1%.
- Goa was the most urbanised state in 2011; Himachal Pradesh the least.
- India had 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in 2011.
- Census towns are governed by panchayats, not municipalities.
Mains points
- Official figures understate India's urbanisation because many dense, non-farm settlements are still classified as rural.
- Urbanisation can be an engine of growth only with investment in infrastructure, housing and governance capacity.
- Unplanned growth creates 'urban villages' and slums; planning must include the informal city.
- Urban life is transforming family structures and social norms, creating both opportunities (women's mobility) and new vulnerabilities (elderly care).
- Small and medium towns can absorb growth and reduce pressure on metros if connected and serviced.
Did you know?
- Mumbai's Dharavi is often called one of Asia's largest slums but is also a hub of small industries like leather and recycling.
- Kerala has an 'urban–rural continuum' where villages and towns blend into each other along roads.
- Ancient Harappan cities like Mohenjo-daro had planned streets and drainage over 4,500 years ago.
Indian & Physical Geography: All chapters
- The Universe and the Earth
- Atmosphere and Its Composition
- Atmospheric Temperature
- Atmospheric Moisture
- Air Mass, Fronts & Cyclones
- Evolution of Earth's Crust, Earthquakes and Volcanoes
- Interior of the Earth
- Landforms
- Geomorphic Processes
- Movement of Ocean Water
- Oceans and Their Properties
- Climate of a Region
- Indian Geography: Introduction and Geology
- Physiography of India
- Indian Climate
- Indian Drainage
- Soil and Natural Vegetation
- Mineral and Energy Resources, Industries in India
- Indian Agriculture
- Population, Migration and Urbanisation